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OXY-ACETYLENE 
WELDING and CUTTING 

including Information on 
Acetylene, Oxygen, Electric Welding 



A practical and complete work on the use and 

maintenance *of apparatus, and the welding 

of various metals — including special 

castings and parts. 

A recognized text book — indispensable to the 

beginner and of great help to the finished 

welder. 

By P. F. WILLIS 




Sixth Revised and Enlarged Edition. 
Fully illustrated by specially made engravings. 



New York 
THE NOEMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 
, 2 West 45th Street 

1922 






Copyrighted 1922 by 
The Norman W. Henley Publishing Company 



Copyrighted 1919 by 
P. F. WILLIS 



PRINTED IN U. S. A. 



^ 






DEC 22 72 

« 

©CI.AB92538 



PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION 

Some ten years ago the author started a welding" 
shop, using the oxy-acetylene process. He hardly 
knew how to light the torch, much less its operation. 
In this respect he was on an equal footing with a few 
other venturesome individuals in this country who had 
embarked in the same business, regarding which prac- 
tically nothing was known. It follows that there 
were many failures and disappointments. 

The author can well testify that "there is no royal 
road to learning," and yet in offering this treatise he 
is prompted by the belief that the man who goes 
ahead may smooth out some of the rough spots, and 
thereby assist those who come after. 

PREFACE TO THE SIXTH REVISED AND 
ENLARGED EDITION 

This book has met with such a very cordial reception 
on the part of the public that the sixth revised and 
enlarged edition has just been issued, more than 30,000 
copies of the previous editions having been sold. To 
the present edition much new valuable material has 
been added, which will be helpful to those interested 
in the art of welding. 

In a work of this kind it is but fair to state that the 
author is indebted for suggestions and ideas to many 
individuals and writers. 

P. F. Willis. 

November, 1922. 



DEDICATION 

This work is respectfully dedicated 
to Mr. George L. Walker, a gentleman 
with whom the author worked side by- 
side in the infant days of welding, and 
for whom, by reason of his patience, 
carefulness, skill and judgment a high 
regard and esteem was created. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 
Acetylene 

History. Generation. Properties. Sizes and Cost of 
Tanks. Hazards in Connection with Acetylene. Dis- 
advantages of Compressed and Generated Gas. . . .7-26 

CHAPTER II 

Oxygen 

Properties. Various Methods of Manufacture with 
Description of Each Process such as: Sodium 
Peroxide, Chlorate, Brin's or Barium Oxide, La- 
voisite, Electrolysis of Water, Liquid Air. Effect 
of Temperature on Compressed Gas. How to De- 
termine Contents of Cylinder Under Pressure, in- 
cluding Table for Same. Effect of Impurities in 
Gas 27-42 

CHAPTER III 

Welding and Cutting Torch 

Requisites for Welding Torch. Difficulties in Manu- 
facture. Flash-backs. Waste of Oxygen. Differ- 
ent Types of Torches with Opinions of Authorities. 
Chemical Changes Taking Place in Oxy-Acetylene 
Flame. Objections to Some Torches. Operation of 
Cutting Torch. Theoretical Amount of Oxygen 
Necessary for Cutting. Effect on the Steel 43-64 

CHAPTER IV 

Apparatus and Installation 

Regulators and Reducers. Construction and Care. 
Gages. Goggles. Acetylene Generator. Important 
ConsiHpvqtions. Portable Generators. Directions 



vi CONTENTS 

for Connecting up Tank or Portable Welding Out- 
fit. Installation of Generator Plant 65-84 

CHAPTER V 

Preparing for Welding 

Necessary Tools for Repair Welding. Cleaning the 
Metal. Beveling. Pre-Heating Methods and De- 
vices. Artificial and Natural Gas. Kerosene and 
Gasoline Torches. Furnaces for Pre-Heating. Ex- 
pansion and Contraction of Metals. Melting Points 
of Metals. Regulation of Flame. Execution of a 
Weld 85-103 

CHAPTER VI 

Welding of Different Metals 

Welding of Cast Iron, Steel, Brass or Bronze, Copper, 
Aluminum. Malleable Iron and Lead Burning. 104-121 

CHAPTER VII 

Welding of Sheet Metal and Pipe 

Welding of Sheet Iron. Welding of Connections. Ma- 
chine Welding of Sheet Metal. Welding of Gas, 
Ammonia, Air, Steam, and Water Pipes and Mains. 
Tests and Costs of Same. Illustrations of Weld- 
ing 122-140 

CHAPTER VIII 

Boiler Welding 

Fire Box Welded to a Height of Three Feet. All 
Welded Fire Box. All Welded Door and Flue Sheets. 
Welding Less than Full Door Sheets. Welding of a 
Simple Crack, Patch, Cracks in the Throat Sheet 
of Boiler, Cracks in Side Sheets, Patches in Fire 
Sheets. Welding of Door Collars, Door Holes, 
Caulking Edge. Welding Sheet to Mud-ring. 
Welding Locomotive Flues 141-177 

CHAPTER IX 
Welding of Various Pieces 

Welding of Automobile Cylinder, Lug on Manifold. 
Repairing Scored Cylinder. Welding Arm of Alumi- 



CONTENTS vii 

num Crank Case, Crack in Aluminum Oil Pan, Fly- 
Wheel, Large Cylinders, Crank Shaft, Automobile 
Frames. Tempering. Finishing a Weld While Hot 
with a File. Clamps for Holding Sheet Metal Edges 
in Alignment. Welding Horse. Welding Dies, High 
Carbon Tool Steel to Low Carbon, Manganese Steel. 
Aluminum Soldering. Use of Oxygen for Removing 
Carbon. Cost Card. Receipt Ticket. Description of 
Welded Castings 178-217 

CHAPTER X 

Welding Symbols 218-225 

CHAPTER XI 

Electric Welding 

Spot, Butt and Arc Welding. Direct and Alternating 
Current Machines. Kinds of Electrodes. Specifica- 
tions for Electrode Wire. Protection for The Oper- 
ator. Information Required of Prospective User. 
Length of Arc. Preparation of Metal for Welding. 
Expansion and Contraction. Instructions for Be- 
ginners. Tables and Useful Information 226-248 



FIRST EDITION 
Published November, 1916. 

SECOND EDITION 
Published December, 1917 

THIRD EDITION 
Published November, 1918 

FOURTH EDITION 
Published December, 1919 

FIFTH EDITION 
Published September, 1920 

SIXTH EDITION 
Published November, 1922 



OX Y ACETYLENE WELDING 
AND CUTTING 

CHAPTER I 

ACETYLENE. 

History — Generation — Properties — Sizes and Cost of 
Tanks — Hazards in Connection with Acetylene — 
Disadvantages of Compressed and Generated Gas. 

What is Acetylene? 

A hydro carbon gas composed of equal 
volumes of carbon and hydrogen. By 
weight it is composed of 93% carbon and 
7% hydrogen. 

When was it discovered? 

In 1836 by Davy, an English chemist, 
and Berzelius, a Swiss chemist. 

From ivhat is Acetylene obtained? 

From calcium carbide. 
What is Calcium Carbide? 

It is a substance, hard like rock, of a 
grayish color, and possessing a slight crys- 
talline structure. 

When ivas it discovered? 

In 1892 by an American chemist, named 
Willson, at Spray, N. C. 

7 



8 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

How is it manufactured? 

Lime and coke in the proportion of 56 
parts by weight of the former to 36 parts 
of the latter are fused or melted together 
in an electric furnace. It is cooled and 
crushed and is then assorted as to size 
by means of screens. 

How is Acetylene obtained from Calcium 
Carbide? . 
When calcium carbide and water are 

brought together, acetylene is formed. 

This is accomplished as follows : 

The calcium in the calcium carbide 
combines with some of the oxygen in the 
water and forms first calcium oxide 
or quick lime, and then calcium hydroxide 
(slacked lime). The carbon in the calci- 
um carbide combines wth some hydro- 
gen from the water to form acetylene, 
the chemical symbol of which is C 2 H 2 . 

Is there more than one method of bringing 
the Carbide and water together? 
Yes, there are three methods. 

Name them. 

First, water to carbide; second, reces- 
sion ; third, carbide to water. 

Explain each method. 

The " water to carbide" method consists 
in allowing water, drop by drop, to fall 
upon a body of carbide. This was the 



Acetylene 9 

earliest method of generating acetylene 
and its adoption was due to the fact that 
it was easier to control the flow of water 
than it was the feeding of the carbide; 
especially as the carbide first put on the 
market was not uniform as to size. 

The "recession" method consists in al- 
lowing water to rise, coming in contact with 
either a mass of carbide or successive lay- 
ers of carbide. 

The "carbide to water" method consists 
in feeding the carbide in small amounts 
into a large volume of water. 

Which is the best? 

The ' i carbide to water. ' ' 

Why? 

After generation is impossible and purer 
gas is produced. Again when carbide and 
water are brought together heat is evolved. 

Now this heat can be considerable, some- 
times reaching 1000° F., or it can be negli- 
gible, depending entirely upon the amount 
of water. If there is a sufficient amount 
of water both the carbide and the water 
will be kept cool. It has been found that 
if for each pound of carbide, one gallon 
of water is supplied, the temperature is 
kept down — in fact, cannot possibly exceed 
212° F., and in practice never goes that 
high. The "carbide to water" method is 



10 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

the only one that guarantees a sufficient 
amount of water to assure cool generation. 

What effect does heat have on Acetylene 
during generation? 

If the heat should rise high enough, what 
chemists term polymerization takes place. 
By this is meant that the acetylene under- 
goes a change and is transformed into 
other gases, such as benzol, styrolene, etc. 
These latter gases require for their com- 
bustion a different amount of oxygen than 
does acetylene, and their flame temperature 
is not so high. 

A temperature that would produce pol- 
ymerization, would also be hazardous, and 
if there was any mixture of air with the 
gas, an explosion would likely result. 

Is it possible to explode Acetylene? 

Yes. 

How? 

First, when mixed with air in the proper 
proportions — 3% to 58% of acetylene to 
the rest air — and in the presence of a spark 
or flame. 

Second, at a pressure of 24 pounds it is 
possible for it to explode without any air 
mixture, in the presence of spark or flame. 

Third, when compressed in an ordinary 
container to 30 pounds or more it may ex- 



Acetylene 11 

plode without any air mixture and without 
a spark or flame. Neither concussion or 
shock are necessary to produce the explo- 
sion. An explosion of this character is 
generally attributed to decomposition, 
although some claim that it is due to im- 
purities in the carbide, such as sulphur and 
phosphorus forming combinations which 
ignite spontaneously. 

Is it possible to compress Acetylene to 25 
pounds or higher safely? 

Yes. 
How? 

The container is first filled with a porous 
substance, such as asbestos cement. It is 
then further filled with an inflammable 
liquid called acetone. This liquid, acetone, 
has been found to possess the peculiar 
quality of dissolving or absorbing 25 times 
its volume of acetylene at atmospheric 
pressure and continues to do this for each 
atmosphere of pressure (15 pounds) it is 
put under. 

While the asbestos cement apparently 
fills the tank, in reality, on account of its 
porosity, only 20% of the space in the tank 
is occupied by the asbestos ; acetone to the 
amount of about 43% of the capacity of 
the tank is then added. This leaves about 
37% of the contents of the tank for acety- 



12 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

lene as it is taken up or dissolved by the 
acetone. This absorbing or dissolving qual- 
ity of the acetone is so remarkable that 
it may be well to compare the amount of 
acetylene that a tank of one cubic foot 
capacity would contain under fifteen at- 




Fiff. 1 
Commercial Acetylene Co.'s Tank 

mospheres (225 pounds) and the amount 
the same size tank will contain under the 
same pressure but with the gas dissolved. 
In the first instance there will be approxi- 



Acetylene 13 

mately fifteen cubic feet of gas. We sim- 
ply multiply the cubic contents (one foot) 
by the number of atmospheres (fifteen). 

In the latter, however, there will be about 
161 cubic feet, or roughly estimated at 
about ten times as much gas as in the first 
tank. This is obtained as follows : 

The amount of acetone is about 43% of 
the contents of the tank whose capacity 
was assumed to be one cubic foot. There- 
fore, the acetone occupies .43 of a cubic 
foot. At atmospheric pressure the ace- 
tone dissolves twenty-five times its volume 
of acetylene, so that in this case at zero 
gauge pressure there is in the tank .43x25 
or 10.75 cubic feet of acetylene and at 225 
pounds pressure there will be 10.75x15 or 
161 cubic feet. 

Does Acetylene exercise a toxic action if 
air containing a large proportion of it 
is breathed? 

The best authorities agree that acetylene 
itself possesses very small poisonous qual- 
ities, so that the danger of breathing it is 
practically nil. This is because it is almost 
free of carbon monoxide. 

How much Acetylene will a pound of car- 
bide produce when made with a gen- 
erator? 
Conservatively 4% cubic feet for the 



14 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

lump size and 4% cubic feet for the very 
small size. One carbide manufacturer 
claims five cubic feet and another 4.8 cubic 
feet, but iheir figures cannot be obtained. 

What is the present price of carbide? 

Five and three-quarter cents without a 
contract; from 5 to 4.8 cents per pound 
with a contract, according to consumption. 

What is the cost of Acetylene per cubic 
foot made from, a generator at above 
prices for carbide? 
Not to exceed l 1 ^ cents per cubic foot or 

$1.25 per 100 cubic feet. 

What is the price of dissolved or com- 
pressed Acetylene? 
From $2.45 per 100 cubic feet to large 
users to $3.00 per 100 cubic feet to the 
average consumer plus freight on the full 
tank and on the empty tank returned. 

Taking into consideration the freight, what 
is the average cost of "tanked" 
Acetylene? 
Four cents per cubic foot. 

What size or capacity of Acetylene tank 

shoidd be used for welding? ' 

Jnder no circumstances should a tank 

of less capacity than 100 cubic feet be used. 

A tank should not be discharged at a faster 



Acetylene 15 

rate than one-seventh of its capacity per 
hour. This means that a welding tip should 
not be used on a 100-cubic foot tank if it 
consumes more than 15 cubic feet per hour. 
The use of small automobile tanks should 
be discouraged, only the very lightest work 
can be done and the cost of the gas is con- 
siderably more than it is when using the 
regular welding cylinder. 

When would you advise the use of 
"tanked" Acetylene? 

When only occasional welding or cutting 
is done or where portability is desired. 

When ivould you advise the use of a gen- 
erator? 

When stationary welding or cutting is 
done, using about 200 cubic feet of acety- 
lene or more per week. 

What is the saving over tanked Acetylene 
per 100 cubic feet? 

The difference between $1.25 for gener- 
ator gas and $4.00 for tanked gas, or $2.75. 

Has the tanked gas any disadvantages? 
Yes. 

Name them. 

(1) Inconvenience and delay in shipping 
tanks. 



16 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

(2) No assurance that you receive full 
amount of gas in tank. 

(3) Some gas always remains in the 
tank. 

(4) The solvent (acetone) mixes with 
the acetylene and produces a bad weld. 

(5) Certain make of tank not your prop- 
erty. 

(6) Likelihood of leakage from tank 
greater than from generator on account of 
higher pressure. 

(7) Lack of sufficient gas to finish a job. 

(8) Hazard. 

Explain each of the above. 

INCONVENIENCE AND DELAY IN 
SHIPPING TANKS 

The inconvenience and delay incident to 
shipping tanked acetylene is a serious 
problem. Delays in shipment will neces- 
sarily occur, and they usually occur when 
the welding plant is most needed. But, 
with the very best possible time, it is usu- 
ally two or three days before a full tank is 
received. One of the important values of 
a welding plant is readiness to serve. Any- 
one familiar wth custom welding realizes 
that 75% of the repair work must be gotten 
out in a hurry. It is rush work, and your 
value to the customer increases when you 
are in a position to at all times take care 
of the work promptly. 



Acetylene 17 

NO ASSURANCE THAT YOU RECEIVE FULL 
AMOUNT OF GAS IN TANK 

With tanked acetylene you must depend 
upon the correctness of the companies re- 
charging the cylinders. A gauge on the 
tank will only indicate the pressure of the 
gas — not the quantity of gas. No one but 
the recharging people can tell how much 
gas is in a cylinder as the amount of gas 
depends not only upon the size of tank and 
the pressure, but also upon the quantity 
and quality of the solvent — acetone — in the 
tank. It takes a smart man that can look 
through a steel tank and tell haw much 
acetone is on the inside, and there is no 
way for the customer to measure it. No 
one questions the honesty of any of the 
firms engaged in the filling of acetylene 
tanks, but their employees are human ; they 
are likely to make mistakes; and as a 
matter of fact they do sometimes make 
mistakes. 

SOME GAS ALWAYS REMAINS IN THE TANK 

• 

With tanked gas you never get all the 
gas out of the tank. A quite considerable 
amount of gas remains and is shipped back 
to the recharging station to be resold to you 
in vour next tank. 



18 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

THE SOLVENT ( ACETONE ) MIXES WITH THE 

ACETYLENE AND PRODUCES 

A BAD WELD 

When tanked acetylene is used, the gas 
from a full tank will produce an excellent 
weld, but as the pressure and the amount 
of gas in the tank is lowered, the acetone 
or solvent comes off also, adulterating the 
acetylene, contaminating it with a hydro- 
carbon of less heat units and consequently 
lowering the temperature of the name. This 
acetone also contains impurities which af- 
fect the strength of the weld. That the 
acetone is carried off and burned with the 
acetylene is evidenced by the fact that one 
of the refilling companies at one time made 
a charge of 2c per ounce for whatever loss 
of acetone was shown when the tank was 
returned. 

A CERTAIN MAKE OF TANK NOT YOUR 
PROPERTY 

Acetylene tanks are simply loaned by one 
of the different concerns compressing 
acetylene* under a "Service Agreement," 
for which they charge, and you are com- 
pelled by the agreement to get your re- 
charges from them. You do not own the 
tank. It is not even leased to you. You 
simply pay a certain amount for the privi- 
lege of buying their gas and you cannot go 



Acetylene 19 

into the open market and buy your acety- 
lene. 

LIKELIHOOD OF LEAKAGE FROM TANK GREATER 

THAN FROM GENERATOR ON ACCOUNT 

OF HIGH PRESSURE 

The pressure of the gas in the high pres- 
sure generator cannot exceed 15 pounds. 
The pressure of the gas in an acetylene 
tank is at least 225 pounds, and maybe 
more. It must be obvious that the likeli- 
hood of leakage is greater under the higher 
pressure. 

LACK OF SUFFICIENT GAS TO FINISH A JOB 

It often occurs that a welding job comes 
in which will take a fair amount of gas. 
Perhaps a part of the gas in your tank has 
been used on other work and not enough 
remains to do this particular job. What 
are you going to do? You can use what 
gas is in the tank to partially weld the cast- 
ing, then send your empty tank in and 
write or wire for another full one. This 
means th^t the casting cools down and you 
have lost your heat, which is expensive ; be- 
sides, distortion often occurs on account 
of this cooling when only partially welded. 
You could send the partially full tank back 
at once and order a full tank, but this 
means loss of gas in the tank returned. 



20 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

HAZAKD 

Any power-producing agency has inher- 
ent hazards, and acetylene is no exception. 
A generator of good design and workman- 
ship possesses no greater hazards than a 
compressed or dissolved acetylene tank. 
Some tanks have exploded; so have some 
generators ; so that any claims to the con- 
trary, it is a stand-off between the two on 
the question of hazard. 

What are the disadvantages of a gen- 
erator? 

First, there is a slight variance in pres- 
sure of the gas between locking and releas- 
ing the motor. This necessitates occasional 
adjustment of the flame by means of the 
torch cocks. This is largely overcome by 
means of a special regulator. 

Second, recharging the generator and 
removal of sludge requires about twenty 
minutes. The indolent may offer this as 
an objection. 

Third, cost of generator is much more 
than cost of a tank. 

Fourth, some precautions must be taken 
to prevent freezing in winter. 

Fifth, generators should not be moved 
when rilled with carbide, and used for port- 
able work. 



Acetylene 21 

Sixth, generator house should be pro- 
vided, which necessitates an expense. 

What fuel gas is best adapted for welding? 

Acetylene. 
Why? 

The temperature of an acetylene flame 
when burned with oxygen is in excess of 
6300° F. This is a temperature exceeding 
by over 2000° F. its nearest rival, hydro- 
gen. It is the flame temperature that 
counts in welding and not the B. T. XL's of 
a gas. 

What are some of the gases that have at 
various tunes tried to compete with 
Acetylene? 
Hydrogen, Blau gas, Wolf gas, Thermo- 
lene, Oxy-carbo, etc. 

What are the objections to the above? 

First, it is impossible to do heavy weld- 
ing unless these gases are enriched with 
acetylene. 

Second, usually, the cost of doing such 
work as is practical, is more than it would 
cost using acetylene when all factors, such 
as labor, are considered. 

Why does Acetylene, when burned with 
oxygen, give us the hottest fuel flame 
known? 
Broadly speaking, the gas which has the 



22 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

greatest amount of carbon and the least 
amount of hydrogen will give us the hot- 
test flame. Acetylene contains by weight 
93% carbon, almost approaching gaseous 
carbon. There is another property which 
acetylene possesses, which assists in in- 
creasing the flame temperature, and it is 
the fact that it is an endothermic com- 
pound. 

What is meant by an Endothermic Com- 
pound? 

It is a compound whose formation from 
elementary substances is attended with -ab- 
sorption of heat. The electric furnace has 
made the manufacture of carbide practi- 
cable. Authorities differ as to whether cal- 
cium carbide, when formed, absorbs or lib- 
erates heat, but they are agreed that when 
carbide and water are brought together 
slacked lime and acetylene are formed and 
that the former liberates heat, while the 
acetylene absorbs heat. When the acety- 
lene is burned, this absorbed or stored-up 
heat is liberated, and helps to increase the 
flame temperature. 

What is it that limits the temperature of 
the Oxy-Acetylene flame? 

The dissociation point of carbon mon- 
oxide— (CO.). 



Acetylene 23 

What is meant by the dissociation point 
of an inflammable gas? 
It is the temperature at which the gas 
refuses to unite with oxygen. 

At what pressure does Acetylene liquefy? 

At 26 Atmospheres (282 lbs.)— At 32 Degrees F. 
At 40 Atmospheres (588 lbs.) — At 70 Degrees F. 

What is Copper Acetylide? 

It is a compound which is formed when 
acetylene is exposed for a considerable 
time to copper. 

What properties, if any, does this com- 
pound possess? 

It is explosive. 
What lesson do we learn from this? 

That under no condition should copper 
be used when it will come in contact with 
acetylene. 

What is the density or specific gravity of 
Acetylene? 
Assuming air to be unity or 1, it is .91 
for acetylene. It is therefore slightly 
lighter than air. 

Does Acetylene, ivhen burned, give off any 
Ultra Violet Rays? 
It does not, so that no harm can come to 
the eyes from this score. However, it must 
be remembered that any bright light will 
in time tire and weaken the eyes so that 



24 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

it is strongly recommended that smoked 
glasses be worn. 

What is the weight of a cubic foot of Acety- 
lene? 

.069 of a pound. 

How many cubic feet of Acetylene does it 
take to weigh a pound? 
14.5 cubic feet. 

What is the ignition temperature of a mix- 
ture of Acetylene and air? 

About 805 °F. 

What concerns manufacture Carbide? 
American Carbolite Company. 
Canadian Carbide Company. 
Union Carbide Company. 
Gas Tank Products Company. 

What companies furnish compressed 
Acetylene? 

Commercial Acetylene Weldiiig Com- 
pany. 

Prest-O-Lite Company. 
Searchlight Company. 

What is the policy of each company with 
reference to furnishing the gas? 

The Commercial Acetylene Company sel- 
dom sell any of their tanks. They usually 
loan them to responsible people without 
charge. They furnish tanks having a ca- 



Acetylene 25 

pacity of 125 cubic feet, 250 cubic feet and 
500 cubic feet. 

The Prest-O-Lite Company manufac- 
tures two sizes of tanks, one of which con- 
tains practically 100 cubic feet of gas and 
the other 300 cubic feet. They charge un- 
der a service agreement $37.50 for the 
small size, and $75.00 for the large size 
tank. 

The Searchlight people charge $37.50 for 
the small tank, and $75.00 for the large 
tank. 

Each of these companies will refill only 
their own tanks. 

Which compressed Acetylene companies 
offer the best propostion to the user? 

All three companies now loan their tanks 
if a contract is obtained in which the con- 
sumer agrees to purchase the gas for one 
year, return the tank in good condition, and 
to pay a rental charge of usually 25 cents 
per week if the tank is kept longer than 
90 days. About 20% more is charged for 
the gas in * 'loaned' ' tanks than is charged 
where the tanks are owned by the user. 
The prices charged for the gas is practi- 
cally the same by each company, so that the 
only thing to consider in most cases is 
service and freight charges. 
Are there any hazards in connection with 
Acetylene? 

There are some who believe in minimiz- 



26 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

ing the hazards in connection with acety- 
lene. The writer does not belong to that 
school. Any sensible man realizes that any 
power-producing agency, whether it be 
steam, electricity, gasoline or acetylene 
holds within itself possibilities for good or 
evil. It would seem that one way of avoid- 
ing accidents with acetylene is to apprise 
and thoroughly familiarize one's self with 
its properties. "When properly handled, 
acetylene will unite in a molten mass, a 6x6 
inch iron beam, and the same power which 
accomplishes this wonder of yesterday will 
play havoc if one becomes careless and .re- 
fuses to follow a very few simple and com- 
mon sense rules. Millions upon millions 
of feet of acetylene, both tanked and gen- 
erated, are used yearly with but a trifling 
number of accidents as compared with the 
installations. 

A few acetylene tanks and generators 
have exploded. Where the explosion oc- 
curred inside the generator, it was seldom 
of a serious character. Where consider- 
able damage results it is usually caused by 
the gas leaking out in considerable quanti- 
ties in the room from the tank or the gen- 
erator and mixing with the air. Never 
under any circumstances try to find a leak 
with a lighted match. Elsewhere we will 
advise more fully as to the care that should 
be observed when working with acetylene. 



CHAPTER II 

OXYGEN. 

Properties — Various Methods of Manufacture, with De- 
scription of Each Process, such as: Sodium Perox- 
ide, Chlorate, Brin's or Barium Oxide, Lavoisite, 
Electrolysis of Water, Liquid Air— Effect of Tem- 
perature on Compressed Gas — How to Determine 
Contents of Cylinder under Pressure, Including 
Table for Same Effect of Impurities in Gas. 

■What is Oxygen? 

Oxygen is an element. It is the most 
abundant and most widely distributed of 
all the elements, constituting by weight 
more than one-fifth of the air, and eight- 
ninths of all the water on the gloue. It 
enters largely into the solid constituents of 
the earth's crust, and is found in the tis- 
sues and fluids of all forms of animal and 
vegetable life. 

Oxygen is a colorless, tasteless gas and 
is essential to the support of all animal 
life. 

What is the density or specific gravity of 
Oxygen? 
Assuming air to be unity or 1, it is 1.105 
for oxygen. It is, therefore, slightly heav- 
ier than air. 

How many cubic feet of Oxygen does it 
take to make a pound? 
11,209 cubic feet. 

27 



28 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

What does a cubic foot of Oxygen weigh? 
.08921 of a pound or 100 cubic feet 
weighs 8.92 pounds. 

What are some of the various methods of 
making or procuring Oxygen? 

(1) Eed oxide of mercury. 

(2) Sodium peroxide. 

(3) Chlorate process, with either potas- 
sium chlorate or sodium chlorate. 

(4) Brin's process or the use of barium 
oxide. 

(5) Lavoisite process. 

(6) Electrolysis of water. 

(7) Liquid Air. 
Describe each? 

Oxygen can be obtained by heating red 
oxide of mercury. This is purely a lab- 
oratory experiment, not being commer- 
cially practical. Its only interest lies in 
the fact that this method was the first one 
employed to produce oxygen. 

SODIUM PEROXIDE PROCESS 

Sodium peroxide is a yellow solid which 
when brought in contact with water liber- 
ates oxygen. This process is extremely 
simple. Each pound of sodium peroxide 
will produce two cubic feet of oxygen of 
high purity. The market price of the 
chemical is high so that the cost of oxygen 
by this method is excessive, ranging from 
about 12 to 20 cents per cubic foot. This 



Oxygen 29 

method is employed to some extent in pro- 
curing oxygen for medicinal purposes, 
used mainly in conjunction with nitrous 
oxide (laughing gas) as an anaesthetic. 

CHLORATE PROCESS 

Potassium chlorate when heated alone 
to a temperature of about 350° F. gives 
off oxygen. It has been found that if man- 
ganese dioxide is mixed with the potas- 
sium chlorate in the proportion of about 
100 pounds of potassium chlorate to 14 
pounds of the manganese that it does not 
require so much heat to liberate the oxy- 
gen — only about 200° F., so that in prac- 
tice this is usually done. If sodium chlor- 
ate is used, the amount of manganese is 
increased somewhat. Potassium chlorate 
will give off about five cubic feet of oxygen 
per pound and the sodium chlorate will 
produce about 12% more oxygen per 
pound. Sodium chlorate is not so stable 
a compound as potassium chlorate, and the 
latter chemical was in much greater favor 
than the former. 

At the prevailing prices of these chemi- 
cals before the European War, the gas 
could be made for about 2 cents per cubic 
foot, and of a purity ranging from 85% to 
98%, depending entirely upon the method 
and care exercised in purifying. 

There were two methods of making oxy- 
gen by this process. One consisted in gen- 



30 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

erating the gas under its own pressure and 
was designated by the trade as a "Self- 
Compressing ' ' type. The gas made by this 
method was of low purity and was at- 
tended by hazards of so serious a charac- 
ter that the better class of manufacturers 
tried to discourage its use. The other 
method consisted of heating the chemicals 
in a sealed retort, allowing the gas to pass 
through several scrubbers and purifiers, 
collecting in a gas holder and then com- 
pressing into tanks. The present price of 
chemicals makes this method impractical. 



or 

BAKIUM OXIDE PKOCESS 

In this method of making oxygen, barium 
oxide is used and the gas is produced by 
the alternate formation of barium dioxide 
and its decomposition into barium oxide. 
The installation of a plant requires con- 
siderable space and special heating re- 
quirements are necessary so as to produce 
a working temperature of 800° F. The 
process consists in heating barium oxide 
and directing upon it a blast of air, when 
it takes up oxygen from the air and forms 
barium dioxide (Ba0 2 ). The temperature 
is then raised and the barium dioxide de- 
composes into barium oxide and oxygen. 
The process is theoretically simple, but in 



Oxygen 31 

practice presents certain serious difficul- 
ties. At one time several of these plants 
were operating in this country, but they 
were not a commercial success and were 
abandonee 1 

LAVOISITE PROCESS 

This is a trade name, lavoisite being a 
chlorine product. The process consists in 
bringing together the chemical and water 
that has been heated to about 180° F., when 
oxygen is evolved. One pound of lavoisite 
and one-half pound of water will produce 
one cubic foot of oxygen of excellent pur- 
ity. The cost is about the same as the 
chlorate process. 

ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER PROCESS 

Oxygen and hydrogen are liberated when 
a suitable electric current is passed 
through water whose conductivity has been 
increased by the addition of either an acid 
or an alkali. From the positive pole will 
pass oxygen and from the negative pole 
will pass hydrogen. There will be gener- 
ated 2 cubic feet of hydrogen for each 1 
cubic foot of oxygen. The vessel in which 
the electrolytic action takes place is called 
a cell. This cell is divided or separated 
into two chambers by means of a partition 
— usually of pure asbestos cloth. The ob- 
ject of this partition is to keep the two 
gases — hydrogen and oxygen — from mix- 



32 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

ing, so that it is of the highest importance 
that these asbestos diaphragms or parti- 
tions be of the very best of material in 
order that the danger from rapture shall 
be minimized. Should the hydrogen and 
the oxygen be allowed to mix, it would be 
attended by very grave danger, as even so 
low a mixture as 5% hydrogen and the re- 
mainder of oxygen or vice versa will ex- 
plode. 

Oxygen made by this process is usually 
of an excellent quality; gas 98% pure 
should be obtained direct from the cells 
and if purified will be in excess of 99% 
pure. 

Various types of cells are offered the 
public. The claims of the manufacturers 
as to the efficiency range anywhere from 
3 to 3.8 cubic feet of oxygen and twice that 
amount of hydrogen per kilowatt hour. 
Probably 3% cubic feet of oxygen would be 
a conservative figure. Assuming that an 
electric current rate of one cent per K. 
W. H. was obtained, 100 cubic feet of oxy- 
gen would cost 28 cents. To this must be 
added interest on investment, depreciation, 
labor, overhead and cost of compressing 
into tanks. This is on the assumption that 
the hydrogen is not marketable. However, 
in recent years there has been created a 
quite considerable demand on the part of 
soap and cottonseed lard manufacturers 



Oxygen 33 

for hydrogen, for what is known as "oil- 
hardening." Where the hydrogen can be 
utilized, this effects a very material saving 
in the cost of the oxygen and under these 
conditions the electrolytic process will be 
a strong competitor with any process. A 
number of industrial concerns throughout 
the country have installed small electro- 
lytic plants, primarily to obtain hydrogen. 
This gives them as a by-product a very 
limited amount of oxygen and some are at- 
tempting to market it. We would strongly 
advise against the use of this gas and un- 
hesitatingly recommend that the customer 
purchase oxygen only from those concerns 
who are engaged primarily in the oxygen 
business, for the reason that the concern 
whose principal business is the manufac- 
ture and sale of oxygen is not only much 
more apt to appreciate the necessity for 
pure gas, but as his reputation is at stake 
will undoubtedly more frequently test his 
gas for impurities than the concern who 
is m the business merely as a side-issue. 

LIQUID AIE PEOCESS 

Obtaining oxygen by the liquid air 
method is a refrigeration process By 
compressing the air and then allowing it 
to expand through a small opening a tem- 
perature sufficiently low to liquefy the air 
is obtained. This temperature is 374° be- 



34 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

low zero F. at atmospheric pressure — a 
temperature so cold that it is almost im- 
possible to realize it. The nitrogen is al- 
lowed to evaporate, leaving liquid oxygen 
behind. The liquid oxygen is in turn al- 
lowed to gasify and is led to suitable gas 
holders, from which it is compressed into 
steel drums or tanks. The perfection of 
this process is due very largely to the ef- 
forts of Linde, Claude and Hildebrandt. 

It is possible to obtain oxygen of a high 
purity by this process. About 20% is 
added to the manufacturing cost by in- 
creasing the purity from 92% to 97%, and 
further increasing the purity to 99% en- 
tails an additional 10% to the manufactur- 
ing cost. From this it will be readily seen 
that there is always the temptation during 
exceedingly busy times to decrease the pur- 
ity of the gas. The impurity in liquid air 
oxygen is nitrogen, an inert gas. The cost 
of oxygen by this process depends upon 
the size of the installation and whether the 
plant is operated continuously. Claude, in 
his work on Liquid Air, Oxygen and Nitro- 
gen, states that oxygen can be made "for 
2 centimes the cubic meter. ' ' A centime is 
equivalent to one-fifth of a cent and a cubic 
meter is equal to 35.3 cubic feet, so that 
this amount of gas would cost two-fifths of 
a cent, or 100 cubic feet of gas would cost 
one and one-fifth cents. If these figures 



Oxygen 35 

are correct, he did not take into considera- 
tion, depreciation, labor, overhead, etc. 
What is the present market price of Oxy- 
gen? 
From I14 cents per cubic foot, to very 
large users, to 1% cents per cubic foot to 
small users. 

In what kind of containers is Oxygen fur- 
nished? 
In steel drums in which the gas is com- 
pressed to about 1800 pounds. 
When a gas is compressed to so high a 
pressure, is there not danger of leak- 
age at the tank valve? 
Yes. The purchaser should insist on 
valves that will open and close easily and 
which will not leak around or through the 
packing gland regardless as to the position 
of the valve stem. 

What is the policy of the various Oxygen 
Companies with reference to furnish- 
ing the steel drums? 
To responsible parties they will furnish 
the tanks free for a period of 30 days, but 
they retain the right to make a rental 
charge of a small amount for the tank if 
it is not returned within the 30 days. 
What capacity tanks are usually fur- 
nished? 
100 cubic feet, 150 cubic feet, 200 cubic 
feet and 250 cubic feet. 



36 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

Does the temperature of the air affect the 
pressure in the tank? 

Yes. 
How? 

As the temperature increases the pres- 
sure of the gas in the tank increases on ac- 
count of it expanding and as the tempera- 
ture decreases, the pressure drops. 
Give table showing the different pressures 
at various temperatures? 

Table of pressures per degree for tanks carrying 
1800 lbs. at 68 degrees F. Pressure in pounds per degree 
at any temperature from zero "F," to 100 degrees above 
zero "F." inclusive, with the volume remaining con- 
stant at all times. 



Temp. 


Press. 


Temp. 


Press. 


Temp. 


Press. 


Temp. 


Press . 




Lb. 




Lb. 




Lb. 




Lb. 


Deg. 


Per. 


Deg. 


Per. 


Deg. 


Per. 


Deg. 


Per. 


F. 


Deg. 


F. 


Deg. 


F. 


Deg. 


F. 


Deg 





1568 


26 


1657 


51 


1743 


76 


1828 


1 


1572 


27 


1660 


52 


1746 


77 


1831 


2 


1575 


28 


1664 


53 


1749 


78 


1835 


3 


1579 


29 


1667 


54 


1753 


79 


1838 


4 


1582 


30 


1671 


55 


1756 


80 


1842 


5 


1585 


31 


1674 


56 


1760 


81 


1845 


6 


1589 


32 


1678 


57 


1763 


82 


1848 


7 


1592 


33 


1681 


58 


1766 


83 


1852 


8 


1596 


34 


1684 


59 


1770 


84 


1855 


9 


1599 


35 


1688 


60 


1773 


85 


1859 


10 


1603 


36 


1691 


61 


1777 


86 


1862 


11 


1606 


37 


1695 


62 


1780 


87 


1865 


12 


1609 


38 


1698 


63 


1784 


88 


1869 


13 


1613 


39 


1701 


64 


1787 


89 


1872 


14 


1616 


40 


1705 


65 


1790 


90 


1876 


15 


1620 


41 


1708 


66 


1794 


91 


1879 


16 


1623 


42 


1712 


67 


1797 


92 


1883 


17 


1626 


43 


1715 


68 


1800 


93 


1886 


18 


1630 


44 


1719 


69 


1803 


94 


1889 


19 


1633 


45 


1722 


70 


1807 


95 


1893 


20 


1637 


46 


1725 


71 


1811 


96 


1895 


21 


1640 


47 


1729 


72 


1814 


97 


1900 


22 


1643 


48 


1732 


73 


1818 


98 


1903 


23 


1647 


49 


1736 


74 


1821 


99 


1906 


24 


1650 


50 


1739 


75 


1824 


100 


1910 


25 


1654 















Oxygen 37 

Of what value is this table? 

If the temperature to which the tank has 
been exposed is known, by referring to the 
column adjoining, there is shown the pres- 
sure that the tank should be under if it is 
what is known as a "full" tank. As an 
example, suppose the temperature was 32° 
F., and the tank had been exposed to this 
temperature sufficiently long for the gas 
to be cooled to the same point, then the 
pressure on the gauge would indicate 1678 
pounds. On the other hand, assume that 
it was summer and the temperature 97° F. 
Then the pressure should be 1900 pounds. 
In both cases there was the same amount 
of gas in each tank, but the pressures dif- 
fered, due solely to the gas in the latter 
case expanding and in the former contract- 
ing as the temperature varied. 

We see from the table above that tempera- 
ture affects the pressure of gas. Is 
there any fixed rule for determining 
this? 
It has been found that for every change 
in temperature of one degree Fahrenheit 
there is a corresponding change in volume 
which amounts to 1/491 of the original vol- 
ume of the gas. If a gas occupying one 
cubic foot of space under a temperature of 
say, 70° F. would be raised to a tempera- 
ture of 71° F., the volume would be in- 



38 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

creased 1/491 of one cubic foot. For each 
change in temperature of one degree Fah- 
renheit there is a corresponding change in 
pressure of approximately 3.42 pounds. 

What does this suggest? 

That some certain degree of tempera- 
ture should arbitrarily be chosen as a 
standard from which to measure oxygen. 

Has this been done? 

Yes. Most oxygen companies have taken 
70° P., some 68° F. 

How do you determine the contents of a 
cylinder under pressure? 
It is first necessary to know the contents 
of the cylinder at atmospheric pressure 
This is determined by multiplying the area 
of the head by the length of the cylinder. 
The area of the head is obtained by multi- 
plying the square of the diameter by .7854 
Thus a cylinder having a diameter of 2 feet 
and a length of 3 feet will have a cubical 
contents of— .7854x(2x2)x3 or 9.4248 cubic 
feet. After the cubic contents have been 
found it is only necessary to multiply this 
by the pressure in atmospheres to find the 
cubic contents under any pressure. 

What is an atmosphere? 

It is the pressure of the air at sea level 
and has been definitely determined to be 



Oxygen 39 

14.7 pounds, but for rough calculation 15 
pounds is generally used. 

If a cylinder has- a cubic contents of one 
cubic foot at atmospheric pressure 
(zero gauge pressure), what would be 
the cubic contents at 1800-pound pres- 

s\ 



The 1800-pound pressure is reduced to 
atmospheres by dividing by 15 pounds or 
one atmosphere. The 1800 pounds is 
found to be equivalent to 120 atmospheres. 
The cubic contents of the cylinder — 1 cubic 
foot — is then multiplied by 120, the number 
of atmospheres of pressure and a product 
of 120 cubic feet is obtained. In other 
words, there is enough gas in this tank 
which is under 1800 pounds pressure to fill 
a tank of 120 cubic feet capacity under only 
ordinary atmospheric pressure. 

In practice how is the amount of Oxygen in 
a tank determined? 

Most manufacturers of apparatus have a 
gauge marked on the dial to read both in 
pounds pressure and in cubic feet. 

It may be of interest to some to know the 
amount of gas in the different size of oxy- 
gen cylinders under varying pressures. 
We accordingly give a table herewith for 
tanks holding 100, 150 and 200 cubic feet of 
gas under 1750 pounds pressure. 



TABLE SHOWING CONTENTS IN CUBIC FEET OF DIF- 
FERENT SIZE TANKS AT VARIOUS PRESSURES 



Press, in Lbs. 


100 cu. ft. 


150 cu. ft. 


200 cu. ft. 


per 


Tank 


Tank 


Tank 


Sq. In 


Cu. Ft 


Cu. Ft. 


Cu. Ft. 


15 


.855 


1.282 


1.710 


30 


1.710 


2.565 


3.420 


45 


2.565 


3.84 


5.120 


60 


3.42 


5.13 


6.84 


75 


4.275 


6.4 


8.55 


90 


5.13 


7.69 


10.26 


105 


5.985 


8.97 


11.97 


120 


6.84 


10.26 


13.68 


135 


7.695 


11.53 


15.39 


150 


8.55 


12.82 


17.1 


200 


11.4 


17.1 


22.8 


250 


14.25 


21.37 


28.5 


300 


17.10 


25.65 


34.2 


350 


19.95 


29.92 


39.9 


400 


22.8 


34.2 


45.6 


450 


25.65 


38.47 


51.3 


500 


28.5 


42.7 


57. 


550 


31.65 


47.47 


63.3- 


600 


34.50 


51.7 


69. 


650 


37.35 


56. 


74.7 


700 


40.2 


60.3 


80.4 


750 


43.05 


64.57 


86.1 


800 


45.09 


68.8 


91.8 


850 


48.75 


73.12 


97.5 


900 


51.6 


77.4 


103.2 


950 


54.45 


81.67 


108.9 


1000 


57.5 


86.2 


115. 


1050 


60.35 


90.52 


120.7 


1100 


63.2 


94.8 


126.4 


1150 


66.05 


99. 


132.1 


1200 . 


68.9 


103.3 


137.8 


1250 


71.75 


107.6 


143.5 


1300 


74.60 


111.9 


149.2 


1350 


77.45 


116.17 


154.9 


1400 


80.20 


120.3 


160.4 


1450 


83.05 


124.5 


166.1 


1500 


85.9 


128.8 


171.8 


1550 


88.75 


133.12 


177.5 


1600 


91.5 


137.2 


183. 


1650 


94.35 


141.5 


188.7 


1700 


97.2 


145.8 


194.4 


1750 


100.05 


150. 

40 


200.1 



Oxygen 



41 



Does the purity of Oxygen have any in- 
fluence on welding or cutting? 

Any impurity in the oxygen will lower 
its efficiency. This is not so noticeable in 
welding if the impurity is not in excess of 
2% or 3%, but in cutting it is claimed that 
even a 1% impurity is apparent not only 
as to the time and the quantity of oxygen 
necessary to do the work, but also the ap- 
pearance of the cut. 

Some years ago, Mr. J. M. Morehead in 
a paper read before the International 
Acetylene Association, presented the re- 
sults of test on the cutting power of oxy- 
gen of varying purity. His table follows : 

METAL CUT MILD STEEL PLATE %" THICK 



6 


O 


"3 

o 


in 

a 

o 

o 
c 






u 

CD 

a 

CD -U 


.9o. 


0>- 

B 

.a* 


Appearance of Cut 


a 

X 




£3 


.5 

S 
H 


O 5 


ft-~ 

a o 


3 § 

X . 

0£ 


• £ 

kO O 


. 0) 

2ft 

.3 a 

o 




1 


99.3 


67K 


272 


7.5 


48 


1.3 


Taken as Unit 


Very good 


2 


98. 


67 H 


285 


9.1 


51 


1.6 


23% 


6% 


Good cut 


3 


97.6 


67K 


295 


9.8 


52 


1.7 


31% 


8% 


Fair cut 


4 


96.8 


68 M 


363 


11.8 


64 


2. 


54% 


33% 


Fair cut 


5 


96.4 


67J4 


360 


11.3 


64 


2.1 


61% 


33% 


Ragged and cindery 


6 


95. 


67^ 


377 


11.6 


67 


2 


61% 


39% 


Ragged, dirty and cindery 


7 


92. 


67 y 2 


551 


16. 


98 


2> 


108% 


104% 


Very dirty and rough 


8 


87.3 


67}4 


660 


16.2 


117 


2.9 


123% 


114% 


Blew back badly very rough 


9 


83.3 


67 K 


855 


18.9 


153 


3.4 


154% 




Very rough and ragged, 
not properly cut 



Subsequent to the publication of this 
table, the writer experimented along the 



42 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

same lines. While we were never able to 
show so marked a difference in the cutting 
power between pure oxygen and that of 
lesser purity as indicated by Mr. Morehead, 
still the difference was such as to justify 
us in recommending that users of oxygen 
insist upon being furnished oxygen of a 
high degree of purity. 



CHAPTER III 

WELDING AND CUTTING TORCH. 
THE OXY- ACETYLENE WELDING TOKCH 

Requisites for Welding Torch — Difficulties in Manufac- 
ture — Flash-backs — Waste of Oxygen — Different 
Types of Torches with Opinions of Authorities — 
Chemical Changes Taking Place in Oxy-Acetylene 
Flame — Objections to Some Torches — Operation of 
Cutting Torch — Theoretical Amount of Oxygen 
Necessary for Cutting — Effect on the Steel. 

What are the requisites for a good welding 
torch? 

The oxy-acetylene welding torch should 
be simple of design, light, yet sufficiently 
strong in its construction and provide for 
the bringing together of oxygen and acety- 




Fig. 2 
An Oxy-Acetylene Welding Torch 

lene and mixing these gases in the correct 
proportions. 

Of what does a welding torch consist? 

It consists of a handle through which 
pass two conduits or tubes, one of which is 

43 



44 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

for the acetylene and the other for the oxy- 
gen. These tubes are each provided with 
cocks or valves and they in turn are con- 
nected to the hose which carry the gases 
from their source of supply. The other 
ends of the two tubes are firmly connected 
with what is known as the torch head. It 
is either here or in the tip itself that the 
mixture is accomplished. Tips of various 
sizes are usually furnished. 

In the manufacture of a torch what have 
been the chief difficulties to overcome? 

First, the tendency to "flash-back," and 
second, a waste of oxygen. 

What produces a "flash-back"? 

Until quite recently, apparently the ac- 
cepted cause of a flash-back was allowing 
the velocity or speed of the mixed gases 
(acetylene and oxygen) to drop below the 
speed of propagation of the flame. This 
occurs when the pressure in the acetylene 
generator or tank becomes low. This may 
occur by reason of the partial obstruction 
of pipes or openings in the torch or tips. 

What is meant by "the velocity of propa- 
gation of the flame"? 

The speed with which a mixture of acety- 
lene and oxygen will travel when ignited. 



Welding and Cutting Torch 45 

How fast does a mixture of Acetylene and 
Oxygen travel when lighted? 

Writers generally give this speed at 
about 330 feet per second, but the author 
believes it to be very much higher. 

What do we learn from this? 

If the generally accepted figure of 330 
feet per second is correct, then the two 
gases when mixed should be under a pres- 
sure sufficient to insure a speed of over 
330 feet per second when the mixture es- 
capes from the nozzle of the tip. 

Hoiv does this prevent a "flash-back"? 

If the gases passing out of the tip are 
traveling at a speed of, say, 350 feet per 
second, then if the flame can only travel 
330 feet per second, it follows that the flame 
cannot pass into the torch. The unignited 
gases traveling faster will always push the 
flame away from the tip. 

What is meant by a "waste of Oxygen" in 
a torch? . 

Two and one-half volumes of oxygen are 
required to completely consume one vol- 
ume of acetylene. Theoretically one and 
one-half volumes of oxygen can be taken 
from the air and one volume from the 
tanked gas. So much for theory. It is al- 
most an axiom that one never obtains in 



46 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

practice what they should in theory. The 
oxy-acetylene torch is no exception. In- 
stead of one cubic foot of tanked oxygen 
being consumed for each one cubic foot of 
acetylene, in practice the best torches use 
from 10 to 15% more oxygen than acety- 
lene and any increase in this amount means 
among other things a waste of oxygen. 

How are welding torches classified? 

According to the pressure of the acety- 
lene. 

How many and what are these classes in 
this country? 
There are two: 

1st — Those using low pressure 

acetylene and 
2nd — Those using what is called 
high pressure acetylene. 

What is meant by Low and High Pressure 
Acetylene? 

The terms are simply comparative. 
"Low pressure " torches are those de- 
signed primarily to use acetylene from a 
generator or gas-holder in which the pres- 
sure is about three inches of water column 
or practically two ounces. 

"High pressure'' torches are those de- 
signed to use acetylene at a pressure of 
from one pound in the smallest tips to 
as high as ten pounds in the largest tips. 



Welding and Cutting Torch 47 

The acetylene is taken either from a tank 
in which the gas is compressed or from a 
special pressure acetylene generator. It 
will be seen that the highest pressure used 
— ten pounds — is really not a high pres- 
sure except as compared with the "low 
pressure" torch using about two ounces. 
There has been some objection to the use 
of the term "high pressure" for fear that 
the public might construe "high" pres- 
sure to mean possibly a dangerous pres- 
sure, and some have preferred to use the 
term i ' medium ' ' pressure. The terms high 
pressure and medium pressure as used in 
this country are synonymous. There is no 
more danger working under ten pounds 
pressure than there is under two ounces. 

How is a low pressure torch constructed? 

The acetylene under a few ounces of 
pressure flows into a compartment through 
which the oxygen is passing at a high ve- 
locity. The high speed of the oxygen 
draws or sucks in the acetylene. This is 
what is known as the injector principle. 

Hoiv is the high pressure torch con- 
structed? 

Both the acetylene and oxygen are un- 
der a few pounds pressure. These gases 
flow through openings accurately deter- 
mined into a mixing chamber from which 
they are conveved to the nozzle. 



48 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

Which type of torch is considered the bestf 

The high pressure. 
Why? 

Because numerous tests have proven that 
in practice, the high pressure torch of 
good design using the acetylene under a 
few pounds pressure consumes practically 
equal quantities of acetylene and oxygen, 
whereas the low pressure torch requires an 
excess of oxygen ranging from 10% to 30% 
more than high pressure torches, depend- 
ing upon the size of the tip. In a series of 
experiments conducted by the Engineering 
Experiment Station of the University of 
Illinois the proportion of acetylene at nor- 
mal regulation averaged 42% in the low 
pressure torch. This is a ratio of 1.38 
volumes of oxygen to one of acetylene. A 
good high pressure torch will not use 
nearly so much oxygen. 

Are there any authorities whose tests prove 
the above assertion? 
Yes. 

Name a few of them and state briefly what 
they have to say? 

"For blow pipes of high pressure all the 
experiments agree in showing that the 
respective volumes of gas used are prac- 
tically equal, and this is obtained in prac- 
tice if the operators are competent. 

"The blow pipes for low pressure acety- 



Welding and Cutting Torch 49 

lene are those with which the most difficulty 
has been obtained even in approaching the 
theoretical equal volumes. ' ' 

GraNJOX & RoSEMBERG. 

"In the high pressure type the adjust- 
ment of the flame is far easier with both 
gases under pressure ; once the adjustment 
is made right it remains so; a more inti- 
mate mixing of the gases is obtained than 
in the low pressure type, and this secures 
higher efficiency. This is of considerable 
importance, as it is found that with high 
pressure blow pipes considerably less 
acetylene and oxygen is required to do a 
fixed quantity of work than is necessary 
with the low pressure blow pipe." 

L. A. Groth. 

"In thiiMgh pressure type torch, both 
gases being under pressure maintain quite 
accurately their relative proportions when 
once properly adjusted. In the injector or 
low pressure torch, each change of tem- 
perature of the blow pipe or of the tip 
forming the outlet causes some variation 
in the size of the opening and consequently 
variations in the relative proportions of 
the issuing gases." 

Whittemore. 

"The low pressure torch is defective in 
that it very often does not carry enough 
acetylene through it to neutralize the ef- 



50 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

feet of the oxygen, consequently the weld 
is oxidized. ' ' 

Richard Hart. 

"All burners or torches with oxygen 
under pressure and acetylene without pres- 
sure, i. e., injector type, become after a 
short time of working practically useless. 

"The radiating heat affects the oxygen 
which is under pressure, with great veloc- 
ity in a narrow space in a different way 
than its action upon the acetylene con- 
tained in a larger space and without pres- 
sure. 

"The result is a decomposition of the 
flame and a burning of the metal. 

' ' This can only be prevented by a skillful 

welder. ' ' 

Dr. A. Hilpebt, Berlin. 
n\\ 

Mr. J. M. Morehead, an acetylenist of 
acknowledged ability, who for years has 
been connected with Union Carbide and its 
subsidiary companies as consulting engi- 
neer, in a paper read before the New York 
Railroad Club, had the following to say: 

"For the best results it is necessary to 
deliver the acetylene at the burner tip un- 
der considerable pressure. * 

"It is unquestionable that the best and 
most satisfactory results are effected if the 
acetylene, as well as the oxygen, is under 
independent pressure." 



Welding and Cutting Torch 51 

In the low pressure torch, the acetylene 
is drawn into the tip by the suction of the 
oxygen operating by a device known as the 
Giffard Injector. In the injector type of 
torch the amount of acetylene drawn in 
varies as the square of the oxygen. 

What chemical changes take place when 
Oxygen and Acetylene are burned? 

_ It may be well to state that all combus- 
tion^ with the exception of some unimpor- 
tant laboratory experiments, is the result 
of combining carbon with oxygen, hydrogen 
with oxygen, or combinations of hydrogen 
and carbon, called hydro-carbons, with oxy- 
gen. As stated before, acetylene is a hy- 
dro-carbon. That is, it contains both 
hydrogen and carbon. The layman when 
watching the phenomenon of combustion is 
apt to consider its action as destroying 
something. Such is not the case. It is« 
simply a chemical change and invariably 
combustion finally produces carbonic acid 
gas or carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and water or 
water vapor (H 2 0). In order to properly 
explain the change or reaction that takes 
place it becomes necessary to use symbols, 
but in this case they are simple and we 
feel sure they willbe easily understood. 

It may be advisable to state here some 
of the symbols which we will use, together 
with what they stand for. 



52 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

H is the symbol for hydrogen. 
C is the symbol for carbon. 
O is the symbol for oxygen. 
CO is the symbol for carbon monoxide. 
C0 2 is the symbol for carbon dioxide or 

carbonic acid gas. 
H2O is the symbol for water or water 

vapor. 
C2H2 is the symbol for acetylene. 

Acetylene (C 2 H 2 ), as previously stated, 
is composed of equal parts of hydrogen and 
carbon and it unites with an equal volume 
of oxygen (O2) to form the first reaction. 
This reaction is indicated by the following 
equation : 

(a) C 2 H 2 +0 2 =2 CO+H2 

In other words, 1 molecule, which is the 
technical expression for a unit volume of 
acetylene, unites with 1 molecule of oxygen. 




^ (B)co+o=co 2 

72C0V 



Fig. 3 
Products of Acetylene and Oxygen Combustion. 

A unit volume of oxygen is expressed as 
2 and is made up of two parts or atoms 
of oxygen. 

The primary stages of combustion as in- 



Welding and Cutting Torch 53 

dicated in equation (a) result as indicated 
in production of 2 unit volumes of carbon 
monoxide (2 CO) and 1 unit volume of 
hydrogen (H 2 ) which, like oxygen, is made 
up of two parts or atoms. Now these 
products of the primary stage of combus- 
tion are formed in the small, bluish-white 
cone of the flame. This is shown in Fig. 3. 
This cone is the zone of greatest heat in 
the flame. The secondary or final stage of 
combustion takes place in the outer flame 
which not only surrounds the small white 
cone, but extends for quite a considerable 
distance beyond it. In this outer flame, 
the carbon monoxide (2 CO) and the hydro- 
gen (H 2 ) which were shown to have been 
produced in the small white cone are trans- 
formed by the addition of more oxygen 
to carbon dioxide or carbonic acid gas 
(CO 2 ) and water vapor (H 2 0). This 
change would appear to be two-phase and 
may be better understood by the following 
equations : 

(b) H 2 +0=H 2 

(c) CO + 0=C0 2 

The changes that take place as shown 
by equations (b) and (c) do not and can- 
not occur in the small white cone of the 
flame, for the reason that a temperature 
of 6300° F. is produced at this point, and 
hydrogen and oxygen will not unite to form 
water vapor above 3600° F., and carbon 



54 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

monoxide and oxygen will not unite to form 
carbon dioxide at a temperature higher 
than 2272° F. In other words, the hydro- 
gen and the carbon monoxide must get out- 
side and away from the small white cone 
where it is cooler before combustion can 
take place. 

Does the small white cone or the outer 
flame or both take oxygen from the 
tank or the air? 

This is a very important point and one 
which the conscientious manufacturer of 
welding apparatus has seriously studied. 
Upon its solution depends whether' the 
torch will be economical or expensive in 
the consumption of oxygen. Enough oxy- 
gen should be supplied from the tank for 
the combustion that takes place in the 
small white cone and it should stop there. 
The outer flame will take its oxygen from 
the air if it is permitted to do so. As the 
tanked gas costs money and the air is free 
and as the outer flame is not for welding, 
economy would dictate that as much air as 
possible be used. It is a notable fact that 
in the low pressure torch, the tendency is 
for the oxygen, by reason of its high pres- 
sure, to pass through the small white cone 
and supply the outer flame with a part 
of this element. This will always be an 
objection to the low pressure type of torch. 



Welding and Cutting Torch 55 

What other objections does the low pres- 
sure torch possess? 

In a series of experiments carried out 
in France by the Union of Autogenous 
Soldering some six different torches using 
low pressure acetylene were tested to de- 
termine, first, just what the ratio of oxygen 
to acetylene was shortly after ignition, and 
second, whether the ratio was constant 
after the torch had been in operation for 
some time and had become thoroughly 
heated. 

The results of these tests are as follows : 







Consumption 




Consumption 


of oxygen 


Consumption 


of oxygen 


per hour after 


of acetylene 


per hr. shortly 


* torch became 


Torch per hour 


after ignition 


hot 


A 20 Cu. Ft. 


28. Cu. Ft. 


36. Cu. Ft. 


B • 6 Cu. Ft. 


8.1 Cu. Ft. 


10. Cu. Ft. 


C 12 Cu. Ft. 


19.2 Cu. Ft. 


22.8 Cu. Ft. 


D 16 Cu. Ft. 


26.4 Cu. Ft. 


30.4 Cu. Ft. 


E 20 Cu. Ft. 


29. Cu. Ft. 


31. Cu. Ft. 


F 26 Cu. Ft. 


40.3 Cu. Ft. 


45.5 Cu. Ft. 



It will be seen from this table that there 
was a considerable increase in the consump- 
tion of oxygen upon the torches becoming 
heated. This was found to occur only in 
torches using low pressure acetylene. The 
effect of expansion on the two gases op- 
erating at such a marked difference in pres- 
sures is not the same. 



56 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

The claim has been made here that the high 
pressure torch is more efficient than 
the low pressure torch. Will all high 
pressure torches uphold this conten- 
tion? 
Not at all. There are inefficient high 
pressure torches due to poor design, or 
poor workmanship or both. In a series 
of tests with a number of torches in which 
the acetylene consumption was fixed at 10 
cubic feet per hour it was found that the 
best result showed 12% more oxygen con- 
sumed than acetylene ; the worst 90% more 
oxygen than acetylene, while the average 
was 33 1-3%. 

The result of these tests should convince 
those who are using autogenous welding, 
or who are contemplating using it, that 
a few pieces of brass do not constitute an 
efficient welding torch. 

One would gather from the above that 

while the gas pressures used in the 

various high pressure torches were 

practically the same, the manner in 

which the gases mix must be different. 

That is correct. Some high pressure 

torches mix in the tip, some in the head 

and others in or near the handle of the 

torch. 

Which is the best type of high pressure 

torch? 
In the first place, practically all torches 



Welding and Cutting Torch 



57 



now have interchangeable tips. These tips 
vary in size, producing a small, medium 
or large flame, as may be desired. Inas- 
much as metal varies in thickness, this per- 
mits of producing a welding flame of suit- 
able size for the work at hand. The writer 
is strong in the belief that the torch which 
provides a separate and distinct mixture 
for each individual 
tip, will come the near- 
est to theoretical per- 
fection. To illustrate, 
Fig. 4 shows a cut of 
such a tip. 

"0" is the oxygen 
inlet. "A" "A" is an 
annular chamber in 
which there are a num- 
ber of holes drilled to 
meet the oxygen inlet. 
These openings form 
the acetylene inlets to 
a mixing chamber and 
nozzle "M." Between 
inlet "0" and inlets 
"A" "A" there is a 
flat seat or seal which 
prevents the gases 
from mixing until they 
reach their proper des- 
tination. As the mix- 
ing chamber and nozzle "M" varies for 




Fig. 4 
A Welding Tip. 



58 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

each tip, so the oxygen inlet "0" and the 
acetylene inlets "A" "A" vary accord- 
ingly, being proportioned to supply the 
correct amount of acetylene and oxygen 
under the proper pressures. 

It must be clear that the amount or 
volume of gas passing through an opening 
depends upon the pressure and the size of 
the opening. Now the pressure is con- 
trolled by the regulators, and with a tip 
of this design it is a simple matter to drill 
the proper openings, once they have been 
correctly determined. 

' ' Most of those torches which mix in the 
handle are the least desirable. Theif de- 
sign is usually such as provides no means 
of accurately changing the volumes. 

THE CUTTING TORCH 

What metals can be cut with the torch? 

Wrought iron and steel'and some grades 
of cast-iron are the only metals which can 
be cut with oxygen. 
Why? 

Cutting with oxygen is simply a burning 
of the metal — a rapid oxidation. The slag 
formed is called oxide or iron oxide. This 
oxide has a much lower melting point than 
that of the metal and as the burning or 
cutting progresses the oxide is detached, 
leaving clean iron for the oxygen to at- 
tack. 



Welding and Cutting Torch 59 

Copper, brass, aluminum and some cast- 
iron cannot be cut. These metals not only 
do not oxidize in the same degree as 
wrought iron or steel, but in addition the 
oxide which does form has a melting point 
equal or higher than that of the metal and 
this prevents it from being detached. 

Of what does the operation of cutting con- 
sist? 

It consists first in heating the wrought 




Fig. 5 
An Oxy-Acetylene Cutting Torch 

iron or steel to redness and then directing 
upon the heated section a jet of oxygen 
escaping under a pressure which varies ac- 
cording to the thickness of the metal to be 
cut. 

In order to cut economically and to secure 
a clean, smooth cut, what is necessary? 

• That the torch be moved at a regular, 
even speed and that the speed shall ap- 
proach as near as possible the maximum 
rate at which the steel is attacked by the 
oxygen; that pure oxygen shall be used 



60 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

and that the oxygen jet shall be held as 
close to the steel as possible. This last 
is very important. As a matter of fact, 
the author, after considerable experiment- 
ing, perfected a cutting torch in which the 
oxygen jet rests directly on the metal that 
is being cut. That this is correct in prac- 
tice is shown by the cut, which in the ma- 
jority of cases is as smooth as a shear cut. 
We believe that an explanation as to 




Fig. 6 

the theory is convincing in that respect. 
Any gas when escaping from an orifice does 
not continue in a straight line, but com- 
mences to diverge almost at the instant it 
passes out of the opening. This is illus- 
trated by Fig. 6. 

Now it must be apparent that if the oxy- 
gen opening is say y 8 of an inch in diameter 
that the diameter of the oxygen jet must 
be about y 2 inch more or less when meas- 
ured a distance of one inch from the noz- 
zle, and this diameter decreases as we 
approach nearer the nozzle. The center or 
core of this oxygen jet is probably pure 
oxygen, but undoubtedly the outer fringe 



Welding and Cutting Torch 61 

is contaminated with air which contains 
80% nitrogen and it is this onter fringe 
that is responsible for the appearance of 
the edge of the cut — whether clean and 
sharp or rough and cindery. Elsewhere 
we have shown the effect of impure oxygen 
in cutting and if the results of these tests 
can be relied upon it bears out the above 
claims. 

Another advantage in resting the oxy- 
gen jet directly on the metal is that the 
cut is narrower, therefore less metal has 
been burned and the operation is more 
economical. 

Who were probably the first to use oxygen 
for cutting? 

Dr. Menne, a German, and Jottrand, a 
Belgian. 

Theoretically, how much oxygen is required 
to cut a given amount of steel? 

As previously stated, the steel when cut 
is transformed into iron oxide or more 
properly magnetic oxide of iron, the chem- 
ical symbol of which is Fe 3 4 . The atomic 
weight of iron is 55.9 and that of oxygen 
16, so that the weights of the iron (Fe) 
and the oxygen (0) in the iron oxide are 
in the proportion of 168 to 64 or 21 to 8. 
The oxygen needed will then be 8/21 times 
the weight of the steel involved, or 38% 



62 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

of the weight of the steel removed. As- 
suming that the kerf or cut has a thickness 
or width of %-inch, the weight of steel 
corresponding to each square inch of the 
face of the cut is .0352 pound, and 38% 
of this is .01338 pound, the weight of oxy- 
gen necessary to make the cut. A pound 
of oxygen at 32° F. occupies 11.2 cubic feet 
of space, and .01338 pound is found to be 
.15 cubic foot. Therefore, theoretically it 
requires .15 cubic foot of oxygen to cut a 
square inch of steel if the kerf is %-inch. 
wide. 

In practice tvhat amount of oxygen has 
been found necessary? 

Just about double the theoretical amount. 
It must be remembered that the above has 
considered only the amount of oxygen re- 
quired in the oxygen jet. To this must be 
added the oxygen and the acetylene con- 
sumed in the heating jets. 

Is there any detrimental change in material 
when cut with oxygen? 

No. On high carbon steels there is a 
slight softening of the metal for a distance 
of about %-inch from the cut, due to the 
annealing effect of the heat. Numerous 
tests have been made and all bear out the 
above assertion. The results of one such 
test may prove interesting. A steel plate 



Welding and Cutting Torch 63 

%-inch thick and 14%-inch long was used. 

TEST NO 1. 

Original Stock Before TEST NO. 2. 

Cut After Cut 

Tensile 47,620 lbs. 50,110 lbs. 

Elastic Limit 31,640 lbs. 29,930 lbs. 

Elongation 33% 33% 

Eeduction of area 35% 42% 

Can a fuel gas other than acetylene be used 
in the pre-heating jet? 
Yes. Ordinary coal gas, Pintsch gas, 
hydrogen or any good hydro-carbon gas 
can be used. 

HYDROGEN FOR CUTTING 

m Hydrogen has been used quite exten- 
sively for cutting, and for extremely heavy 
work would seem to be better adapted than 
acetylene. The hydrogen flame is a long 
one, whereas the acetylene flame is short, 
and this is probably the reason why on 
very thick metal hydrogen would seem to 
be better adapted. 

The cost depends largely upon the price 
at which the two gases can be purchased, 
and when any comparison is made the 
market-price of each, together with the con- 
sumption, should be stated. 

It was the intention of the author to 
show the time and cost of cutting, using 
acetylene as the heating agent, as compared 
with hydrogen as the heating agent. It 
must be borne in mind that for any com- 



64 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

parison to be of any value several con- 
ditions must be identical. They are as 
follows : 

First, The metal to be cut should be of 
the same thickness, quality and cleanliness. 

Second, The oxygen used should be of 
the same purity. 

Third, Operators should be of equal skill. 

Fourth, The apparatus should be of the 
best and in first-class condition. 

Fifth, The market price of Hydrogen 
and Acetylene should be stated. 

Sixth, The amount of gas used should be 
determined by a disinterested party. 

If these conditions are maintained there 
is no reason why figures should not be ob- 
tained reasonably correct. However, the 
author has before him what is claimed to 
be the result of competitive tests made by 
acetylene people and also by the advocates 
of hydrogen. The champions of acetylene 
emphatically state that it cost 60% more to 
cut with hydrogen, while the hydrogen 
manufacturers just as loudly proclaim that 
hydrogen will cut faster and 60% cheaper 
than acetylene. Obviously, both cannot be 
right and at present it would be a waste of 
time to burden the reader with such tests. 
If there is any distinct advantage in the use 
of either gas it will be only a short time 
until the public decides the matter. 



CHAPTER IV 

APPARATUS AXD IXSTALLATION". 

Regulators and Reducers — Construction and Care — 
Gages — Goggles — Acetylene Generator — Important 
Considerations — Portable Generators — Directions for 
Connecting Up Tank or Portable Welding Outfit — 
Installation of Generator Plant. 

The above names used to designate a 
part of the welding and cutting apparatus 
would appear to be used synonymously in 
this country. However, the function of a 
regulator would seem to be wider in its 
scope than that of a reducer. A good regu- 
lator is a very essential part of any welding 
or cutting equipment. 

What is the duty or f notion of a regu- 
lator? 
Primarily to reduce the pressure of the 
oxygen as it flows from the cylinder, and 
the pressure of the acetylene from its tank, 
or the generator as the case may be. Its 
secondary duty is to maintain the desired 
reduced pressure without fluctuating. Al- 
most any type of regulator will fulfill the 
first requirement, but only a high grade 
one combines both features. 

Hotv are regulators constructed? 

They all utilize the diaphragm principle. 
The diaphragm is either of metal or rub- 

65 



66 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

ber composition and attached to one side 
of the diaphragm is a seat which covers 



ATOZZL.E: 



S£/1T 




G/7S OUTLET 



<S/7S ///£.£T 



Fig. 7 
An Oxygen Regulator 



Apparatus and Installation 67 

and closes the opening in a nipple com- 
municating with the gas cylinder. There 
is a spring which rests against the other 
side of the diaphragm. When there is no 
tension on this spring, the parts are so 
adjusted that the diaphragm holds the seat 
over the nipple, closing the gas inlet tight, 
so that no gas can escape from the con- 
tainer. When some tension is put on the 
spring, the diaphragm is pushed inward, 
releasing the pressure of the seat on the 
nipple and allowing the gas to flow into 
the body of the regulator. The pressure 
of the gas climbs until it exceeds the ten- 
sion of the spring when the diaphragm is 
pushed outward, again closing the gas in- 
let. The gas that is in the body of the 
regulator is used up by the torch until the 
pressure drops to a point where the spring 
tension is the stronger, and the seat opens, 
allowing gas to again enter the regulator. 
This continues regularly and might very 
aptly be compared to breathing. If the 
seat is perfect, and the flexibility of the 
diaphragm correctly proportioned to the 
stiffness of the spring, a very sensitive 
regulation can be obtained. 

Should an oxygen regulator be provided 
with a cock or valve at its outlet? 

No, for the reason that if a cock is fur- 
nished at the outlet, there is always the 



68 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

temptation for the operator, when the torch 
is not in use, to shut off the gas at this 
point rather than at the tank valve. If the 
regulator seat should leak, trouble might 
result, whereas if there was no cock a burst 
hose would be the only bad result. 

What are some of the points to be observed 
in order to keep a regulator in good 
condition? 

As stated above, the diaphragm is con- 
tinually breathing or moving and of course 
the seat is subjected to considerable wear 
by the reason of its frequent closing and 
opening of the inlet nipple. If the' seat 
is not perfect, it is of no value and so care 
must be taken that the movement of the 
diaphragm closing the seat is not sudden, 
as the seat will pound on the nipple and 
quite likely be destroyed. This is caused 
by the operator opening the tank valve 
while there is tension on the regulator 
spring, so if you expect your regulator to 
give good service, see that the spring ten- 
sion is released before turning on the gas. 

We have just seen how the regulator seat 
could be injured by the diaphragm being 
suddenly forced outward by the incoming 
gas. The diaphragm itself may be put 
out of commission and possibly injury done 
the seat by reducing from a higher to a 
lower pressure with the outlet closed. 



Apparatus and Installation 69 

To illustrate, suppose that the torch is 
welding on heavy work which requires an 
oxygen pressure of 18 or 20 pounds and 
it is necessary to do some light welding. 
This requires a small tip with an oxygen 
pressure of 2 or 3 pounds. If the thumb 
screw is backed out, releasing the tension 
on the spring there will be little or no ten- 
sion against the diaphragm on the spring 
side and it will be forced outward, and in 
time so buckle the diaphragm that it will 
be useless. Therefore, when reducing from 
the higher to a lower pressure the outlet 
should always be open. 

What is meant by a leaking regulator? 

A regulator leaks when the seat does not 
completely seal the opening in the inlet 
nipple and allows the gas from the tank 
to enter the body of the regulator. A leak- 
ing regulator is detected by the hand on 
the low pressure gauge, which is usually 
the small gauge, creeping up. When the 
hand indicator on this gauge shows the 
pressure creeping 15 or 20 pounds more 
than the pressure shown when the torch 
is operating, then there is a serious leak 
and it is dangerous to continue using a 
regulator under this condition. When this 
occurs the regulator should be returned to 
the manufacturer for repairs. While some 
undoubtedly would be able to repair their 



70 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

own regulators, in the vast majority of 
cases it would be much more satisfactory 
to return them to the manufacturer • who 
would be in a position to put them in first 
class shape. 

It is important that no grease or oil be 
allowed in the interior of the regulator. 
If this should be done it might cause an 
explosion. 

GAUGES 

The better class of apparatus manufac- 
turers equip oxygen regulators with two 
gauges, one of which is a 3000-lb. gauge 
and the other ranging from 50 pounds to 
150 pounds. The 3000-lb. gauge usually 
reads not only in pounds pressure, but also 
in cubic feet, so that by glancing at this 
gauge the operator can instantly note both 
the pressure in the tank and the cubic con- 
tents. The other gauge, which is usually 
of smaller diameter, indicates the pressure 
under which the torch is operating. The 
3000-lb. gauge should be provided with 
what is known as a safety back so that in 
the event that the spring should prove de- 
fective and burst, injury to the operator 
will be avoided. 

GOGGLES 

Tinted or smoked goggles should always 
be worn by those welding. The tint or de- 
gree of color depends entirely upon in- 



Apparatus and Installation 71 

dividual taste. For welders doing general 
repair work a light-smoked and also a dark- 
smoked goggle should be provided, the 
lighter colored goggle being used on alumi- 
num, brass or small castings, while the 
darker goggles should be worn on heavy 
cast-iron and steel work. 

Some welders unquestionably wear 
glasses of too dark a color, the strain on 
the eye trying to see the work being as 
injurious as if they wore none at all. The 
best color is the one which does not tire 
or strain the eye. 

ACETYLENE GENERATOR 

One of the most important units that 
comprise an oxy-acetylene welding plant is 
the acetylene generator. As previously 
stated, these are of two types, namely low 
pressure and high pressure. Nearly every- 
one is familiar with the low pressure gen- 
erator by reason of the fact that it is simply 
a lighting generator. The high pressure 
generator produces the acetylene under a 
few pounds pressure. 

What are the important considerations in 
an acetylene generator? 

They are : 
1st — Safety. 
2nd — Cool generation. 
3rd — Automatic feed. 



72 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

4th — Minimum variance in pressure. 
5th — Good mechanical construction. 

What devices should he placed on a gen- 
erator to insure safety? 

The most important consideration from 
a standpoint of safety is that the feeding 
mechanism on the generator should be ar- 
ranged so that it will lock when a given 
amount of gas has been generated and this 
means when a given amount of carbide has 
been fed into the water. If the locking de- 
vice did not operate, it must be apparent 
that an excess amount of gas would be gen- 
erated. 

In the low pressure generator the gas 
might break the water seal and so escape 
into the room. 

In the high pressure generator an ex- 
cessive pressure might occur. 

Safety blow-offs are provided on all first- 
class generators and these, if operating, 
would prevent the gas from escaping into 
the room, but in any event there would be 
a loss of gas which would be pure waste. 

A flash-back cylinder is necessary on 
either type of machine. While the chance 
of the flame flashing back in the generator 
is rather remote, yet there is the possibility 
of such a thing happening and safety de- 
vices of this kind should be attached to all 
generators. 



Apparatus and Installation 73 

COOL-GENEBATION 

_ Under the head of Acetylene cool-genera- 
tion was briefly described. By this is 
meant supplying a sufficient amount of 
water to dissipate or keep down the heat 
of generation. It is imperative that one 
gallon of water should be supplied for each 
one pound of carbide in the generator. 

AUTOMATIC FEED 

What is meant by Automatic Feed? 

By this is meant that the generator will 
automatically without attention feed car- 
bide and thereby generate gas for the torch 
as it is being used, and will cease generat- 
ing when the torch is not in use. Some 
machines do not do this and it seriously in- 
terferes with the welder, as it is necessary 
for him every few minutes to leave his 
work and feed some carbide by hand. 

MINIMUM VAEIANCE IN PKESSUKE 

In the low pressure generator there is 
practically no variance in pressure. With 
the high pressure generator there is and 
must be a slight variance in pressure. It 
is this slight difference in pressure which 
is taken advantage of to start and stop 
the feeding mechanism. This variance in 
pressure should not exceed a pound or 
two and this is taken care of by means 
of a special regulator for high pressure 
generators. 



74 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

GOOD MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION 

It is admitted by all that any machine 
should have good mechanical construction 
and the only difference arising is as to 
what constitutes good mechanical construc- 
tion. It is the opinion of the writer that 
welding generators should be built very 
much more substantial than the ordinary 
acetylene lighting generator, for the rea- 
son that very much more work is demanded 
of the welding generator than is of the 
lighting machine. 

Some machines have the body of gen- 
erator riveted and soldered. We * are 
strongly of the belief that this is a mistake. 
The generator, of course, must be gas-tight 
and as the rivets do not produce a gas- 
tight joint, soldering is resorted to. The 
sheets are usually galvanized iron. Sheet 
metal workers have long since learned that 
where solder is applied to galvanized stock 
if the parts are subject to any movement 
or strain the galvanizing will peel and, of 
course, as the solder is attached to the gal- 
vanizing it means a loose and leaky joint. 
The pressure in the acetylene generator 
varies and this causes a breathing of the 
body or tank portion and in time the solder 
breaks loose and the gas leaks into the 
room. Too often in attempting to solder 
up these loose joints an open light has 



Apparatus and Installation 75 

been used with fatal results. The best 
generators have all of the seams and con- 
nections welded. It would seem to reflect 
upon the oxy-acetylene process to do other- 
wise. 

The motor which operates the feeding 
machine should be strong and substantial. 
If there is any possible chance of gears in 
time stripping or breaking, devices should 
be arranged to automatically lock the 
motor. 

PORTABLE GENERATORS 

There are some firms who advocate the 
placing of an acetylene generator upon a 
truck and using it for portable work. The 
writer cannot condemn in too strong terms 
such practice. There is no objection in 
moving the generator when there is no car- 
bide in it to where the work is to be done 
and then charging the generator, but to 
move a generator containing carbide and 
water through buildings where there are 
large insurable values is a great mistake 
and is apt to result in loss of property and 
possibly life. 

DIRECTIONS FOR CONNECTING UP TANK OR 
PORTABLE WELDING OUTFIT 

We shall take up first the installation 
of a welding unit in which both the acety- 
lene and the oxygen are used from tanks 



76 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

or cylinders. These are known by the 
trade as "tank" outfits. Before attempt- 
ing to light the torch, the novice should 
thoroughly learn how the different parts 
should be assembled, and he should know 
the function of each separate part of the 
equipment. 

(1) With the portable or tank outfit it 
is necessary to have two tanks. One of 
these contains oxygen, and it is so stamped 
or labeled. The other contains acetylene, 
and this tank is plainly marked acetylene. 
They are both gases, but have entirely dif- 
ferent properties. Learn to call them by 
their correct names of oxygen and acety- 
lene. 

(2) All oxygen tanks have a cap for 
protecting the tank valve in shipment. Re- 
move this cap by unscrewing and attach 
the oxygen regulator, being sure that the 
coupling nut is drawn up tight to prevent 
leakage. It is impossible to attach the 
wrong regulator as only the oxygen regu- 
lator connection will fit the oxygen tank 
valve. Then attach the oxygen hose to the 
regulator outlet. 

(3) If a Prest-O-Lite Acetylene tank is 
used, an adapter must first be screwed into 
the tank valve. This adapter has a left- 
hand screw connecting to the tank. If Com- 
mercial Acetylene or Searchlight tanks are 
used the adapter is not necessary. When 



Apparatus and Installation 77 

outfit is ordered, you should specify which 
make of acetylene tank you contemplate 
using so that the manufacturer may fur- 
nish the right connection. If a Prest-O- 
Lite tank is used, when the regulator is 
connected it will be upright. If Commer- 
cial or Searchlight tank is used the regula- 
tor will form a right angle with the tank. 
Be sure that the connection is tight and 
well made so that there will be no leaks. 
Then attach the acetylene hose to the regu- 
lator outlet. 

(4) Attach the oxygen hose to the cock 
at the torch handle which is stamped with 
the letter "0" or with the word oxygen. 
With most torches this is the upper cock. 
Then attach the acetylene hose to the cock 
at the torch handle which is stamped with 
the letter "A" or with the word acetylene. 
With most torches this is the lower cock. 

(5) The correct welding tip should be 
selected and screwed tightly into the torch 
head. Practically all manufacturers fur- 
nish a table showing the size of tip that 
should be used for different thicknesses of 
metal. These tables are practically cor- 
rect, but some latitude must be allowed, 
as the mass of metal and the kind of metal 
will necessitate some variation. 

(6) Now see that the regulator screws 
on both the acetylene and oxygen regu- 
lators are entirely released — that is, backed 



78 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

out or turned to the left until they are free 
of tension. 

(7) Slowly open the oxygen tank valve 
when the pressure and contents will reg- 
ister on the dial of the 500-pound gauge. 

(8) Open the acetylene tank valve and 
the pressure of the gas in this tank will 
register on the dial of the 500-pound gauge. 

(9) Turn the acetylene regulator screw 
to the right slowly until the number of 
pounds pressure registered on the small 
gauge is the same as shown in the manu- 
facturer's table under the head of acety- 
lene for that size of tip. This small gauge 
indicates the acetylene pressure being de- 
livered through the hose to the torch. 

(10) Turn the oxygen regulator screw 
to the right slowly until the number of 
pounds pressure registered on the small 
gauge is the same as shown in the manu- 
facturer's table under the head of oxygen 
for that size of tip. This small gauge in- 
dicates the oxygen pressure being delivered 
through the hose to the torch. 

(11) Open the acetylene torch cock and 
light the acetylene and then slowly open 
the oxygen cock and continue to open until 
the neutral flame is obtained. Occasionally 
open or close one of the torch cocks to see 
that proper flame regulation is being main- 
tained. 

(12) While operating should the flame 



Apparatus and Installation 79 

pop out, what is commonly called a "back- 
flash" has occurred. This is caused by 
one of four things : 

First— The tip becoming overheated. 

Second — A piece of molten metal flying 
up and momentarily closing the 
orifice of the tip. 

Third— By an insufficient amount of 
acetylene pressure. 

Fourth — By an excess pressure of oxy- 
gen. 

Should this occur, you should quickly 
close first the oxygen torch, valve and then 
the acetylene torch valve. Then relight the 
torch. 

Sometimes in operating a welding torch 
the smaller tips work correctly, but trouble 
is experienced in getting the larger tips 
to stay lighted. If upon investigation none 
of the three troubles mentioned above are 
responsible, then it is quite likely that dirt 
has gotten in the torch tubes and partly- 
closed some of the openings. This dirt 
can come from the hose or other causes. 
By partly closing the openings they will 
still be large enough to supply enough gas 
for the smaller tips, but will not be large 
enough for the larger tips. 

It will therefore, be necessary to attach 
a hose to the tip end of the torch and by 



80 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

using either compressed air or oxygen 
from the tank blow the dirt out through 
the handle. 

DIRECTIONS FOR INSTALLING GENERATOR 
WELDING OUTFIT 

GENERATOR INSTALLATION 

We now come to installation of a weld- 
ing plant which uses acetylene from a gen- 
erator instead of from a compressed tank. 
The first question that suggests itself is 
regarding the foundation. 

GENERATOR FOUNDATION 

This may be of brick, stone, concrete, 
iron or of wood. If of wood then it should 
be of extra heavy timbers arranged so that 
the air can circulate around them and ar- 
ranged so as to form a substantial and firm 
base. It should be seen that the generator 
is level and that no unequal strain is placed 
on it or any of the connections. 

"We would strongly recommend that 
where possible the generator be placed out- 
side of insured buildings in properly con- 
structed generator houses. This is greatly 
to be desired, particularly if the insurable 
values are high, for the reason that if the 
generator is located outside in a separate 
detached building most, if not all, of the 
states make no charge to the insurance 
rates, whereas if the generator is located 



Apparatus and Installation 81 

inside of any of the main buildings there 
is an increased premium rate. The gen- 
erator should be placed so that there will 
be ample room both for the machine and 
the^ attendant to perform his required 
duties. Windows or skylights should be 
provided so there will be" no need for arti- 
ficial light. In climates where there is 
danger from freezing, proper protection 
should be provided to guard against it. 
Steam or hot water heat only should be 
used. 

ESCAPE OE VENT PIPES 

All generators of standard make are pro- 
vided with %n escape or vent pipe. This 
should be of ample size, in no case to be 
less than %4nch internal diameter. This 
pipe should be installed without traps and 
so that any condensation will drain back 
to the generator. It must be carried to 
a suitable point outside the building and 
terminate in a hood located at least 12 
feet from the ground. The hood must be 
constructed in such a manner that it can- 
not be obstructed by rain, snow, ice, insects 
or birds. 

CAPACITY 

Generators should be of sufficient ca- 
pacitv to furnish gas under working con- 
ditions from one charge of carbide to all 
torches installed, for at least one working 



82 Gxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

period of one-half day or 4% hours. For 
the better class of machines — carbide feed 
— the rating has been fixed at one cubic 
foot of gas per hour, per pound of carbide. 
As an example a 50-pound machine, that 
is, one having a capacity of 50 pounds of 
carbide per charge, would have a rated 
capacity of 50 cubic feet of acetylene per 
hour. 

PIPING 

Connections from the generator to ser- 
vice pipes should preferably be made with 
right and left couplings or long thread 
nipples with lock nuts. Where unions are 
used these should be of a type which ob- 
viates the necessity for using gaskets. 
Where possible, the piping should be ar- 
ranged so that any moisture will drain back 
to the generator. If low points necessarily 
occur in any piping, it should be drained 
through tees into drip cups permanently 
closed with screw caps or plugs. In no 
event use pet-cocks. 

In large installations where the service 
pipe extends a considerable distance, the 
main service pipe should be broken at a 
point as close to the generator as possible. 
The connection here should be made out 
of strong and substantial rubber hose. The 
object of this rubber hose is to secure 
electrical insulation. Some accidents have 



Apparatus and Installation 83 

occurred by reason of electricity used in 
the plants grounding on the acetylene ser- 
vice pipe and causing a spark while the 
generator was being charged. Insulation 
as recommended above will prevent this. 

The schedule of pipe sizes for piping 
from the generator to torches should con- 
form to that commonly used for ordinary 
gas, but in no case must feeders be smaller 
than %-inch. 

Generators should not be directly con- 
nected to sewers, but should discharge into 
suitable open receptacles which may be 
provided with an overflow pipe connected 
to the sewer. Piping should be carefully 
tested when system is completed. It must 
not show a loss in excess of 1 pound 
within 12 hours when subjected to a pres- 
sure of 8 pounds. 

CAEE AND MAINTENANCE 

Generators should be cleaned and re- 
charged as nearly as possible at regular 
stated intervals. This work, as well as 
any repairs, should be done during daylight 
hours only when artificial light is not 
needed. When artificial light is absolutely 
necessary, this must be provided by incan- 
descent electric lights enclosed in gas-tight 
globes. In charging generator clean all 
of the residue out thoroughly, and then fill 
with the required amount of water. Never 



84 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

charge with carbide unless generator is 
tilled with water. Always keep flash-back 
chamber filled with water. 

CONNECTING REGULATORS 

When the generator and the service pip- 
ing leading therefrom has been installed, 
attach the acetylene generator regulators 
to the piping at the various locations pre- 
viously determined as welding stations. 
Connect the acetylene hose to the regulator. 
Individual oxygen tanks can be used at 
the various welding stations or a number 
of oxygen tanks can be connected # to a 
manifold provided with a regulator and 
the gas piped at a reduced pressure wher- 
ever required. Connecting the torch is the 
same as for the tank plant. 



Never recharge generator without first 
cleaning out the generating chamber and 
completely refilling with water. 

Never test the generator or piping for 
leaks with a flame, and never apply flame to 
any open pipe or at any point other than 
the torch. In testing for leaks use soap 
and water. 

Never use a lighted match, lamp, candle, 
lantern or any open light near the gen- 
erator. 



CHAPTER V 

PREPARING FOR WELDING. 

Necessary Tools for Repair Welding — Cleaning the Metal 
— Beveling — Pre-Heating Methods and Devices — 
Artificial and Natural Gas — Kerosene and Gasoline 
Torches — Furnaces for Pre-Heating — Expansion and 
Contraction of Metals — Melting Points of Metals- 
Regulation of Flame — Execution of a Weld. 

Probably 90% of those who purchase 
welding apparatus already have all neces- 
sary tools for the welding shop, but for 
the benefit of the remaining 10% we would 
say that one should have a vise, clamps, 
files, stillson and monkey wrenches, tongs, 
chisels, hammer, forge, stationary emery 
and if possible a portable one also, chain- 
block, V-blocks, square and straight edge, 
portable kerosene torch, a number of small 
pieces of iron or steel ranging in thick- 
ness from that of a saw-blade on up, to be 
used as shims, hack-saw, about 200 fire 
brick, roll of asbestos paper, and a weld- 
ing table. 

The welding table is the only accessory 
that requires a description. If one is in 
a town where there is a scrap-iron dealer, a 
cheap and serviceable table can usually be 
found in his scrap pile and obtained for 
the price of ordinary junk. If possible, 

85 



86 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

secure an old casting that has been ma- 
chined on one side and is at least two or 
three inches thick so that it will not be 
easily warped by the heat. An old planer 
bed makes an excellent table if you should 
be fortunate enough to find one. If it is 
impossible to procure such a casting, then 
it will be necessary to make a table about 
30 inches high of either angle iron or bar 
stock and cover it with brick. 

CLEANING THE METAL. 

The edges to be welded and the imme- 
diate vicinity of the weld should be thor- 
oughly cleaned. Not only will the welding 
be facilitated by doing so, but it also pre- 
vents the dirt, oxide, etc., from being incor- 
porated in the molten metal and assisting if 
not actually forming blow-holes. 

If the work is well cleaned, less flux will 
be required and that which is used will do 
its work better. 

BEVELING 

Where the metal to be welded is of a 
thickness of 3/16 of an inch or more, the 
edges should be beveled so that when the 
two pieces are placed together they form 
an angle of at least 90 degrees. 

In steel of % of an inch in thickness or 
more this bevel should be of an even 
greater angle. 



Preparing for Welding 87 

Beveling can be accomplished by either 
grinding, chipping or sawing and it is 
necessary for several reasons. By remov- 
ing the metal, this allows the flame to get 
down to the bottom and work its way np 
and it permits of adding a greater quan- 
tity of metal of better quality. Some weld- 
ers do not bevel, but depend upon the torch 
to flow the metal out or they dislodge it 
when molten by means of a rod. 

In the great majority of cases this is 
bad practice. Occasionally where it would 
be difficult to "line up" the casting after 
it was ground, beveling may be dispensed 
with. Those welders who make a practice 
of welding without beveling will be very 
apt to be troubled with " come-backs ' ' and 
an examination of their work will deter- 
mine that they have not welded all the way 
through, or that they have burned the 
metal. 

When the part to be welded is % of an 
inch thick or more, it is best to bevel and 
weld on both sides if it is possible to do so. 

PRE-HEATING METHODS AND DEVICES. 
CHARCOAL 

Probably the first method of pre-heating 
was the use of charcoal. This fuel is still 
used to a considerable extent. It has the 
advantages of a slow heat, an even one 



88 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

and a fairly high temperature. The slow 
heat, while an advantage on some castings 
is a disadvantage on others. There is one 
serious objection and that is the disagree- 
able fumes which accompany its combus- 
tion. 

ARTIFICIAL OE NATURAL GAS 

In the cities and in certain sections of 
the country, it is possible to procure one 
of the above gases. Where gas can be ob- 
tained, this makes an ideal fuel for pre- 
heating when used in connection with prop- 
erly designed torches. The inlet service 
main into the building should be sufficiently 
large to furnish an adequate flow of gas. 
This pipe should not be less than 2 inches 
in diameter. For cylinder work, or where 
the pre-heating is primarily to take care 
of expansion and contraction a torch using 
the gas with ordinary atmosphere air 
is best adapted. This torch is constructed 
on the Buns en burner principle and is sold 
by almost all manufacturers of welding ap- 
paratus. A torch of this kind gives a soft 
flame of not too concentrated a heat. 

If the pre-heating is entirely or mainly 
for the purpose of economy in the use of 
acetylene and oxygen, then the gas should 
be burned with a torch using compressed 
air. When used with compressed air a 
more cencentrated flame of higher tern- 



Preparing for Welding 89 

perature is secured — just the thing for 
work of this character. 

Torches of either of the two types are 
made in different sizes and the consump- 
tion of gas will range from 100 to 200 cubic 
feet per hour. At $1.00 per 1000 cubic 
feet, they will cost from 10c to 20c per 
hour. 




Fig. 8 
Kerosene Pre- Heating Torch 



90 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

KEROSENE AND GASOLINE TORCHES 

For outside or portable work one of the 
above torches is very desirable. They are 
not well adapted for expansion and con- 
traction pre-heating, their field being 
largely that of heating up heavy castings 
in order to save in the use of acetylene and 
oxygen. Compressed air, usually obtained 
by a hand pump, is used with either fuel. 
The kerosene torch will be found to be 
more economical to operate and will give 
a higher temperature. These torches are 
also manufactured and sold by the leading 
welding manufacturers. 

FURNACES FOR PRE-HEATING 

We have seen the different fuels that 
can be used for pre-heating castings pre- 
paratory to welding. Now the casting is not 
heated out in the open for the reason that 
there would be too great a loss of heat and 
the casting would be subjected to the di- 
rect influence of drafts. It has been found 
necessary when heating the casting to en- 
close it in either a temporary or a perma- 
nent furnace. There are a few who advo- 
cate the use of a permanent furnace, ; but 
unless this work is all of the same size the 
extra outlay for such a furnace is a use- 
less expense ; besides, they are usually ex- 
travagant with fuel. The most practical 



Preparing for Welding 91 

and economical furnace is a temporary one 
built from loose fire brick, whether char- 
coal, gas or kerosene fuel is used. 

The bricks are simply laid one upon the 
other, leaving a space of from 6 to 12 inches 
around the casting, depending upon its size. 
If charcoal is used, the bricks are spaced 
near the bottom, leaving cracks through 
which the air which feeds the fire can pass. 
The top is covered with sheet iron or as- 
bestos. If gas is used spacing of the brick 
s not necessary, the only openings required 
being those through which the gas torches 
pass. If the heating is to take care of ex- 
pansion and contraction, the gas torches 
should not be turned directly on the cast- 
ing, but should be made to impinge direct- 
ly on the brick. This will cause the flame 
to whip around the casting and thereby 
secure a more even heat. If the primary 
object of the heating is a saving of acety- 
lene and oxygen then the pre-heating torch 
can play directly on the casting. 

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION 

All metals are affected by heat. The 
action of heat produces an increase in 
volume ; that is, a casting when heated has 
greater length, breadth and thickness. This 
is called expansion and as a general prop- 
osition this expansion increases progres- 
sively as the temperature increases. As 



92 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

the casting cools its volume begins to get 
less, until at normal temperature it usually 
assumes its original size. This is called 
contraction. It is well to remember that 
you cannot stop a casting from expanding 
when it is heated. This force is irresist- 
ible; no power can prevent it. Do not 
attempt to prevent a casting from expand- 
ing by means of clamps. If you should be 
so foolish as to try, and the clamps were 
strong enough, distortion of the casting 
would inevitably result. As most castings 
are of irregular shape, and the metal 
usually varies in thickness, it is necessary 
to take some precautions in heating so that 
the heavy parts will expand in the same 
ratio as the thin parts. If this is not done 
either breaking or distortion is very apt to 
occur. This precaution is uniform heating 
and in order to secure a uniform heat slow 
heating is necessary. For pre-heating of 
cylinders and like castings in order to take 
care of expansion, remember to heat slowly 
and uniformly and of course to take care of 
contraction cool slowly and uniformly. 
That is the "meat in the cocoanut," heat- 
ing slowly and uniformly and cooling slow- 
ly and uniformly. When the foundryman 
made the casting it was poured from molten 
metal possessing the same temperature 
throughout and flowed into a mold where 
it was entirely protected from the air by 



Preparing for Welding 93 

the sand, which permitted an even and uni- 
form cooling. Welding with the oxy-acety- 
lene flame is simply re-casting and the 
beginner would do well to study and follow 
foundry practice in a number of instances. 
Unless the beginner studies and thor- 
oughly understands the principles of ex- 
pansion and contraction and applies it to 
the work at hand he will not be a success, 
regardless as to how well he may manipu- 
late the torch. In the majority of cases it is 
just as important to maintain alignment 
as it is to make a good weld. If the welder 
ignores expansion and contraction, it is 
inevitable that one of three things will 
happen : 

1st — The casting on cooling will break in 
or near the weld. 

2nd — Distortion of the work destroying 
alignment. 

3rd — The weld may not break and distor- 
tion may not occur, but there will 
be a strain in the casting, causing the 
welded portion, or near it, to snap 
and break when the load is placed 
on the machine. 

A good way to illustrate the effects of 
expansion and contraction and one appar- 
ently popular with those writing on the sub- 
ject is represented by Figures 9, 10, 11 
and 12. Figure 9 represents a bar 



94 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

which is broken at "A." In this case 
the weld can be made without giv- 
ing any attention to expansion and con- 
traction in view of the fact that the 
ends "B" are free. Of course, while 



Fig. 9 

being welded the heat will expand it, but 
there is nothing holding it and it can in- 
crease its length as well as its breadth and 
thickness, and when it cools it comes back 
into its original position. Now in Figure 
10, B A B represents the same bar, except 















sr 









K 





















£ 



Fig. 10 

that now it is the middle member of a 
frame. The length, breadth and thickness 
is the same, the break is the same as is 
also the location. The only difference is 
that the ends "B" are now a part of the 



Preparing for Welding 95 

sides C B D. Let us assume that we make 
the weld exactly as we did when the bar 
was not a part of the frame. 



col 



Fig. 11 



4 



No difficulty would be experienced in 
making the weld, but upon cooling it would 
probably break. However, if it did not 
break and we sight down the edge CBD 




Fig. 12 



it will appear to be "sway-backed » and if 
we place a straight edge along this surface 
(X lg. 11) we can easily see that it does not 
touch at <<B» and is somewhat concave. 



96 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

Now when the weld at "A" cooled, BAB 
became shorter by reason of contraction 
and being stronger than C B D it pnlled 
these two sides in. The casting is not only 
warped and ont of alignment, but a con- 
siderable strain is also set up. It must be 
plain that considerable power was required 
to bend CBD, and this tension is what is 
known as the strain. The proper way to 
make this weld is shown in Fig. 12. 

The ends ' l C ' ' and " D ' ' are heated and 
expand and the break at "A" opens. We 
can now proceed to make the weld without 
fear of bad results. The ends "C" "D" 
and the weld "A" all cool down together, 
leaving the casting in alignment and with- 
out a strain. 

This is perhaps the simplest illustration 
that could be given of expansion and con- 
traction. Each case must be studied. Some 
experimenting will have to be done and 
some failures will be recorded. A good 
rule to follow is — "When in doubt pre-heat 
the entire casting." 

MELTING POINTS OF METALS 

While it is not necessary to know the 
various melting points of metals and alloys 
in order to do good welding, such informa- 
tion will likely prove interesting and in- 
structive. 



Preparing for Welding 97 

Melting Melting 

Metal Point Metal Point 

Platinum 3200° F. Silver 1750° F. 

Soft Steel 2700° F. Brass 1700° F. 

Hard Steel 2550 °F. Bronze 1650° F. 

Nickel 2500° F. Aluminum 1200° F. 

Cast Iron 2100° F. Zinc 850° F. 

Red Copper 1900° F. Tin 650° F. 

Authorities differ considerably as to the 
above temperatures. We have taken the 
figures of several and arrived at a mean 
temperature which should be sufficiently 
correct for comparative purposes. 



REGULATION OR ADJUSTMENT OF THE FLAME 

Elsewhere we have shown how to as- 
semble the welding unit and how to light 




Fig. 13 
Acetylene Only Burning 

the torch. The next and one of the most 
important things is the question of adjust- 
ment so that a neutral flame will be ob- 
tained and maintained. The acetylene 
should be lighted and as the acetylene torch 
cock is slowly opened, it will be seen that 
the flame jumps a very slight distance 
away from the end of the tip when using 
a small size, and as the size of the tip in- 
creases this space increases likewise, until 



98 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

in a very large tip the flame will be sepa- 
rated from the end of the tip by possibly 
3/16 of an inch. We now turn on the oxy- 
gen by slowly opening the torch cock. The 
first thing we notice is that the entire flame 
assumes a more brilliant and whiter color. 
A slight increase in the oxygen and we see 
that the end of the flame commences to 
take on a yellowish cast and the white sec- 
tion is shortening. A further increase in 
the amount of oxygen tends to increase the 




Fig. 14 
Excess of Acetylene 

amount of yellow and diminish the amount 
of white. We have now what is known as 
a carbonizing flame. By that is meant that 
there is not enough oxygen. The white 
portion has what is commonly called a 
"ragged" edge. If welding is done with 
this kind of a flame the metal is almost 
sure to be hard and difficult to machine. 
We slowly further increase the amount of 
oxygen and as we do so, we can see the 
white portion drawing within itself or 
shortening up. When the last straggling 
edge disappears and the white cone is 
round and well defined, it is then we have 
the much talked of neutral flame. The 



Preparing for Welding 99 

length of this small white cone should be 
about 2% times its diameter. This is the 
proper flame for welding. If the oxygen 
is further increased the white cone short- 
ens, becomes more pointed and the hissing 
sound of the gas escaping is materially in- 
creased. 




Fig. 15 

Correct or Neutral Flame 



This is what is called an oxidizing flame. 
By that is meant too much oxygen is being 
furnished and the work is sure to be 
burned. 




Fig. 16 
Excess of Oxygen 

The beginner should practice lighting 
his torch for an hour or more. A hun- 
dred times he should light his torch, adjust 
the flame, turn off the gas and relight 
again, until he is absolutely satisfied that 
he knows what a neutral flame is and how 
to procure it. 

When the neutral flame is once secured 
it does not follow that it will continue 



100 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

neutral indefinitely. On the contrary it 
will quite likely vary somewhat. This will 
instantly be, detected by the experienced 
welder by its effect on the metal. How- 
ever, this treatise is intended primarily for 
the beginner — the neophyte — and not for 
the experienced, and so the thing to do is 
every now and then test the flame by 
slightly closing the oxygen torch valve 
until the flame is carbonizing, and then 
again slowly opening it up until a neutral 
flame is obtained. The trade speaks of the 
small, blue-white flame as the "cone" and 
of the outer flame as the "envelope." It 
is well that one should know these terms 
and speak of them properly. 

EXECUTION OF A WELD 

We have already told how to install a 
welding outfit, how to light and regulate 
the torch and how to set up or prepare the 
work. The next thing is how to execute a 
weld. Whether the. welder sits or stands 
upright is of no importance. 

The' torch is held firmly, but not rigidly, 
and a steady hand is of prime importance. 
Welding should progress forward in a di- 
rection away from the operator. The an- 
gle at which the torch should be held de- 
pends upon the thickness of the metal, but 
for the average class of work a slightly in- 
clined forward position is the one that will 



Preparing for Welding 101 

be found best. For light sheet metal work 
where no filler rod is nsed the angle of 
inclination becomes less, whereas for heavy 
work the torch will be held almost perpen- 
dicular to the work. 

In welding the torch should not be di- 
rected upon a particular spot for any 
great length of time, but should move 
slightly so that the flame will come in con- 
tact with other parts in the immediate vi- 
cinity. This should not be understood to 
mean that the torch should sweep a circle 
whose diameter is one or two inches. 
Most beginners make this mistake. 

The torch should be moved not more 
than % or 5/16 of an inch at a time for 
average work — say %" or %" in thickness. 
A circular motion for metal of this thick- 
ness is not essential, but it is well to ac- 
quire it. For sheet metal work this circu- 
lar movement is very desirable producing 
a very smooth and pretty weld. However, 
there are some that prefer an oscillatory 
movement, the torch being pushed like a 
pendulum from one side of the sheet to the 
other while advancing in a forward direc- 
tion. So far we have not referred to the 
welding rod. It should be held in the free 
hand. Instead of using a straight rod, it 
will be found more convenient for the 
welder to use a rod having an angle of 90 
degrees. In steel this is formed by sim- 



102 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

ply bending over 3 or 4 inches of the end 
and continuing to do this as the rod is used 
up. For cast iron, we hold the end of one 
rod in the middle of another and "tack" 
the two with the torch. The size of the 
welding rod is important and should be 
proportional to the thickness of the metal 
welded. 

The following table will be a fair guide 
to follow: 





Dia. of Weld'g 






Rod for 


Dia. of Weld'g 


Thickness 


Cast Iron 


Rod for Steel 


of Metal 




No 12 


o. 16 to 18 Gauge 




Gauge Wire 


}4 in. to M in. 


^in. 


yk in. • 


Y /i in. to ^ in. 


re m- 


h in. 


% in. to Y 2 in. 


in* m. 


j^in. 


Y 2 in. to % in. 


Kin. 


Kin. 



y& in. to % in. ^ in. M m. 

Most beginners make the fatal mistake 
of not getting the metal to be welded hot 
enough before adding the tiller rod. It is 
a good plan in beginning a weld to forget 
that you have a filler rod. Get the casting 
hot and then start the metal to flowing to- 
gether at the bottom of the bevel. Not un- 
til then should the filler be used. The 
edges of the weld and the filler rod must 
melt at the same time. If this is not done, 
the weld will be of no value. 

The welding rod should not be held so 
that as the metal melts it falls in drops 



Preparing for Welding 103 

on the weld. In a great deal of work the 
welding rod is held against the welded por- 
tion practically at all times. Where this 
is not done, the rod is held so that the 
outer flame of the torch or the envelope 
will keep it hot, so that when the moment 
arrives for adding on some metal, the rod 
is lowered into the molten metal. By this 
time the end of the rod should be melting, 
but it may be necessary to direct the torch 
against the rod. A small amount of metal 
is added and then the edges of this added 
metal should be melted and made to inti- 
mately incorporate with the main body of 
metal. A very important thing to bear 
in mind is the distance the torch should 
be held from the metal. For steel welding 
the end of the white cone should just touch 
or brush the metal. For cast-iron it should 
not touch the metal but should be held 
about 3/16 of an inch from it. Sometimes, 
in order to work out blow-holes that are 
the result of impurities burning to a gas, 
it may be necessary to push the end of the 
white cone down into the molten metal 
and with a slight rotary motion flirt out 
the impurities. 



CHAPTER VI 

WELDING OF DIFFERENT METALS. 

Welding of Cast Iron, Steel, Brass or Bronze, Copper, 
Aluminum — Malleable Iron and Lead Burning. 

Probably 75% of the welding done in a 
custom repair shop is the welding of cast- 
iron. Contrary to popular belief, it is the 
easiest welding to learn, and when care and 
good workmanship are exercised the 
welded portion will be superior to the rest 
of the casting. The failures that occur are 
usually on pieces such as cast-iron boiler 
sections where the life of the metal has 
been burned out on account of long con- 
tact with a fire, or on work where expan- 
sion and contraction are difficult to take 
care of. 

Cast-iron is an alloy of steel and carbon. 
J'he carbon contents vary from 3% to 5%, 
and it exists in two states : first, as a chemi- 
cal mixture and, second, in a free state. 
In the latter case the carbon is distributed 
throughout the iron in much the same way 
that salt is placed in bread. Upon the 
amount of free carbon in the cast-iron will 
depend the softness of the metal and, of 
course, the ease with which it can be ma- 
chined. 

104 



Welding of Different Metals 105 

HAKD SPOTS 

The bugbear of the average beginner is 
hard spots in cast-iron welding. By ob- 
serving a few rules this trouble can be 
practically overcome. The important rules 
to be remembered and observed are : 

First, see that a neutral flame is main- 
tained at all times. 

Second, keep the white cone about % of 
an inch from the metal. 

Third, use a clean, high-grade welding- 
rod, free from dirt and with a silicon con- 
tent of about 3%.- 

Fourth, use only enough flux to make 
the metal flow and insist on a flux free 
from carbonates. 

Fifth, cool the work slowly. 

Even with all of these precautions fol- 
lowed, occasionally one will have a few 
hard spots. Usually these are on the sur- 
face and can be easily removed with an 
emery, but if any difficulty in doing this 
presents itself the following, which was 
recommended by an old blacksmith, may 
be tried: Place some powdered sulphur 
on the weld by means of an old hack saw 
blade or flat file and rub the sulphur on 
the weld until the sulphur ceases to burn 
and becomes gummy; then cool slowly. 
While we know there are some objections 
to this, still it has been tried by the writer 
and while not infallible, it frequently helps. 



106 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

It is necessary to weld cast-iron in a 
horizontal position. This is because it has 
no tenacity when molten. Sometimes it 
becomes necessary to make a vertical weld, 
in which case a heavy piece of steel or a 
fire brick is nsed to form a shelf. As the 
welding progresses, the shelf is raised or 
built np higher. As previously stated, the 
edges of the metal at the weld should be 
beveled except for very thin metal. 

Only first-class welding rods should be 
used. These should be purchased from 
those specializing in oxy-acetylene appara- 
tus and who guarantee to flame-test their 
welding materials. It is to be deplored 
that at the present time there seems to be 
a tendency to buy on a price rather than 
a quality basis. It is the very poorest 
economy to buy cheap welding materials. 

In using the flux, the welding rod is 
heated and dipped into the can when 
enough should adhere to the rod. If the 
iron is unusually "dirty," it may be found 
advisable to sprinkle some flux on the weld 
with the fingers, but too much should not 
be used. 

Sometimes the operator has trouble pre- 
venting the metal from running away when 
trying to square up a casting. In cases 
of this kind, the torch should be turned 
over so that the flame will be pointed up. 
The force or blast of the flame will help 



Welding of Different Metals 107 

to hold the metal and prevent its running 
away. But this alone will not do. By 
watching the metal closely one can see 
when it is about ready to topple over and 
run down and just before this happens lift 
the torch and give the metal a chance to 
set. Then go back and add a few more 
drops and in a very short time enough 
metal has been added and the edge is 
squared up. All that is necessary is pa- 
tience and practice. 

BLOW-HOLES 

One source of considerable annoyance to 
the beginner is the formation of blow- 
holes in the weld. These could just as well 
be called gas holes, as they are caused 
either by the absorption of gases or by 
impurities in the metal burning to a gas, 
probably more often the latter. They will 
form with the good welder and the poor 
welder alike, but the difference lies in the 
fact that the good welder will get rid of 
the blow-holes, whereas the inexperienced 
permits them to remain in the weld. How 
does the good welder get rid of them? 

Most beginners and also a great many 
who have had considerable experience get 
the surface of the casting flowing a little 
and then add a heavy layer of cast-iron 
from the filler and then attempt to "work 
in" this heavy addition. The mistake is 



108 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

flowing in too much metal at one time. Not 
only on cast-iron, but on any kind of weld- 
ing never add any more metal than is nec- 
essary. One should add a very thin layer 
at a time, putting it in the right place and 
leaving it there. A slight but constant mo- 
tion of the filler rod and the torch should 
be maintained until the weld is finished, 
The filler rod should be dipped into the flux 
quite frequently and when a thin layer is 
added, lift the torch for a second or two and 
allow it to solidify before adding any more. 
By doing this, you allow to escape the 
gases which otherwise, as in case of a 
heavy addition of filler, are covered over 
and enclosed and are unable to break 
through the heavy layer of metal. 

In the making of bread, lightness is de- 
sired. This lightness or porosity is ob- 
tained by the formation of gas, and its re- 
tention in the bread until baked or solidi- 
fied, producing a multiplicity of blow- 
holes. If for any reason the gas escapes, 
the bread drops, becomes heavy and com- 
pact, something to be regretted in baker- 
ies, but the very thing we are trying to 
do with the cast-iron — allow the gas to es- 
cape so that it will be compact, close- 
grained and free from blow-holes. 

In welding of large castings that have 
had to be pre-heated, or even those the 
size of automobile cylinders, the work is 



Welding of Different Metals 109 

attended with considerable discomfort on 
account of the heat. We wonld recommend 
the use of a portable electric fan. This 
can be set on a box and pointed so that 
the blast of air is in an upward direction, 
just in front of the welder. It is needless 
to say that the current of air should be 
turned so that it will not strike the casting. 
By using a fan the operator will at all 
times be supplied with fresh air free from 
any fumes and will be kept cool, a condi- 
tion that enables him to turn out more 
work than otherwise. It is not only hu- 
mane, but it will be found to be good busi- 
ness practice to furnish a fan. 

WELDING OF STEEL. 

For the average welder, steel may be 
divided into two classes — soft steels and 
hard steels. The difference between these 
two is mainly that of carbon content. In 
the soft steels the carbon content may be 
as low as .05 per cent, while extremely 
hard steels may contain as much as 1.5 
per cent of carbon. Low carbon or soft 
steels have high ductility and malleability. 

Increasing the carbon contents increases 
the strength, elastic limit and the property 
of being hardened by tempering. The soft 
steels are the easiest welded, while the 
hard steels, particularly if the metal is 



"110 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

over one inch in thickness, are the most 
difficult. Operators quickly learn to do 
beautiful work on thin sheets of soft steels, 
but they are lost when attempting heavy 
work. Unquestionably the welding of me- 
dium and heavy steel is the most difficult 
to learn. 

The average welder does not get his 
metal hot enough or he gets it too hot and 
burns it or oxidizes it, as the chemist would 
say. Of course, it is a comparatively easy 
matter to overcome the first shortcoming 
by increasing the size of the welding flame 
or by playing the flame on the metal for a 
longer time, but the second fault of burn- 
ing the metal is not so easy to avoid. It 
is practically impossible to prevent this, 
using a torch of poor design supplying an 
excess of oxygen to the flame. We have 
already emphasized the importance of 
using scientifically designed torches, but it 
will bear repetition. As oxygen is always 
present in the air, this atmospheric oxygen 
will greedily attack the steel when in a 
heated condition. All of us are familiar 
with the scale that forms on steel when 
heated in an open fire. This scale is simply 
oxidized iron or burnt metal. If this oxide 
is allowed to incorporate itself with the 
weld, the strength is bound to suffer. 

It would almost seem superfluous to 
again impress upon the beginner the im- 



Welding of Different Metals 111 

portance of flame regulation, did not ne- 
cessity demand it. An excess of acetylene 
carbonizes the metal, while an excess of 
oxygen burns it. 

The importance of using a good welding 
wire is usually underestimated. Swedish 
wire has long been advocated and it is 
excellent, but we doubt at the present time 
whether there is any genuine wire of this 
kind in this country. This does not mean 
that excellent domestic welding wire is not 
to be had. On the contrary our country 
produces as fine welding wire as any na- 
tion. The impression prevailed for a long 
time that Swedish iron's reputation was 
based on the fact that it was made with 
high-grade charcoal, but recent investiga- 
tions have exploded this belief. We know 
now that the strength and tenacity of 
Swedish iron is due to the fact that cen- 
turies ago Mother Nature deposited with 
the iron ore a small percentage of vana- 
dium, and when the ore was smelted, this 
vanadium, scavenger like, cleansed the 
metal of its impurities and thereby im- 
parted those properties which have given 
it its reputation. 

Some American firms, grasping at any- 
thing that will help them to dispose of their 
wares easily, have coined trade names in 
which a part of the name Sweden is used, 
by which they designate their wire. On 



112 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

the face of it, it is designed to deceive and 
mislead the public. 

Acting on the knowledge we have as to 
the properties of vanadium, several years 
ago the writer, in conjunction with one of 
the large steel companies, experimented 
and finally produced a rod containing a low 
percentage of vanadium and carbon which 
for heavy welding is unsurpassed. It must 
be remembered that there are many kinds 
of vanadium steel on the market and only 
one kind is suitable for a filler rod. 

There are some writers who advocate 
the hammering of the metal after welding. 
This probably does do some good if the 
operator is able to determine the correct 
temperature at which the metal should be 
and is capable of maintaining this tem- 
perature, otherwise more harm than good 
will be done. 

The exact temperature at which ham- 
mering should be done is difficult for the 
novice to either determine or obtain, and 
our advice is to learn to rely upon the 
welding alone. 

The welding of hard steels is difficult 
even for an experienced welder and the 
beginner had better not try this class of 
work. The work is best done if the entire 
piece or at least a considerable portion of 
it is pre-heated to a cherry red and a tip 
selected that is one size larger than if the 



Welding of Different Metals 113 

work was soft steel. If anything*, the flame 
should be slightly carbonizing. The weld- 
ing should be done fast. One should not 
linger over the work, as this will burn the 
metal. 

WELDING OF BRASS OR BRONZE 

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, 
while bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. 
With the exception of the cheap brasses, 
that is, those having a high percentage of 
zinc, either brass or bronze can be welded 
with good success. When hot, considerable 
care should be exercised, if it is necessary 
to move the work, as neither one of the 
two alloys has much strength then and the 
least strain will cause the casting to break. 

The work should be beveled and the 
edges and immediate vicinity of the weld 
thoroughly cleaned. 

A welding tip one size larger than is 
necessary for the same size work in cast- 
iron should be employed. Pre-heating is 
justified on the grounds of economy. The 
white cone should be held a distance of 
about 14" from the metal. Just back of 
the weld on both sides should be heated 
thoroughly, and some flux sprinkled in the 
groove. The torch is then switched to the 
beveled edges and as the edges commence 
to melt add the filler rod of either Tobin 
or manganese bronze, first dipping the 
heated rod in the flux. If the weld is a 



11 4 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

tooth in a gear or located at some wearing 
point, manganese bronze is preferable as 
it is somewhat harder, otherwise use Tobin 
bronze. 

Weld fast or you will find blow-holes in 
your work due to the zinc and tin burning 
out and the metal absorbing gases. 

WELDING OF COPPER 

The melting point of copper is not only 
high, but it also conducts the heat very 
rapidly and these two properties combine 
to make it a metal very difficult to weld 
properly. In addition it absorbs gases 
from the welding flame, which causes the 
formation of blow-holes. 

The metal should be cleaned in the im- 
mediate vicinity of the weld and the edges 
to be welded should be beveled. A welding 
tip one size larger than is required for the 
same thickness of cast-iron should be used. 
On account of the high conductivity, it be- 
comes necessary to pre-heat a consider- 
able area in the vicinity of the weld to a 
high temperature before starting to weld. 
A neutral flame should be maintained and 
the white cone should be held about % of 
an inch from the metal. A flux should be 
used. While a pure copper rod is much 
used, better results can be obtained with 
a special rod containing a very slight per- 
centage of phosphorus. 



Welding of Different Metals 115 

WELDING OF ALUMINUM 

Of late years, aluminum has come into 
such common use that everyone is familiar 
with it. When heated to a high tempera- 
ture it becomes very fragile, not having 
sufficient strength to hold up its own 
weight. Like copper, its conductivity is 
high. Its tendency to oxidize is greater 
than that of any other commercial metal. 

When the metal is heated to the melting 
point, this oxide is easily seen and by the 
workman is usually spoken of as the 
"skin," 

The piece to be welded is prepared in 
much the same manner as though it were 
cast-iron or brass. The piece is cleaned 
and the edges are beveled. For the begin- 
ner we have one suggestion to make which 
he will find of considerable assistance, but 
which he may possibly discard after he 
becomes proficient. We have already 
stated that the metal has no strength when 
it is around the melting point and the be- 
ginner will very likely find his work sink- 
ing in or holes dropping through it. 

When this happens a few times the op- 
erator is apt to become "rattled" and dis- 
couraged. To avoid this happening one 
can prepare the work as follows : 

After the work has been cleaned and 
beveled, wet some paper and lay over the 
crack on the underside. Take a wire and 



116 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

form a slight loop. Fasten one end to the 
casting on one side of the crack and the 
other end to a part of the casting on the 
other side of the crack. Take some plaster 
of Paris and add sufficient water until it 
is of a thick consistency and then put it 
on top of the wet paper and around that 
part of the casting where the crack is lo- 
cated. The wire mentioned above will act 
as an anchor to hold the plaster of Paris 
and prevent its falling out. The plaster 
must then be allowed to dry. "When it 
has done so, a perfect supporting mould 
will have been formed. The wet paper has 
prevented any of the plaster from getting 
into the crack. "We can now proceed to 
weld without the danger of the casting 
dropping in the event it should happen to 
get a little too hot. 

The average beginner is apt to consider 
aluminum welding as very difficult. This 
is not the case when one understands the 
nature of the metal and also keeps in mind 
the principles of expansion and contrac- 
tion. 

Compared with cast-iron, what do we 
find? That it melts at a very much lower 
point and yet conducts heat very much 
more. When heated, its expansion Is 
greater and, of course, when cooling its 
contraction is greater than cast-iron. This 
means that the portion that is brought to a 



Welding of Different Metals 117 

molten state by the flame will, when cool, 
occupy less space than will cast-iron under 
the same operation. The oxide or "skin" 
already mentioned requires about twice as 
much heat to melt it as does the metal. A 
little reflection and we see that some ex- 
ternal means must be resorted to in order 
to destroy or remove this oxide before a 
successful weld can be obtained. 

There are three methods of doing this. 
Each is good when properly executed. 
The}^ are: 

First, welding by puddling. 

Second, welding with a flux. 

Third, combining these two methods by 
puddling while at the same time using 
a flux. 

The puddling method was the first in 
vogue and is still used quite extensively. 
It consists in removing the oxide mechan- 
ically by means of a rod, called a spoon. 
Two spoons are employed and they are 
very simple, consisting of two %" steel 
rods, each flattened at one end and one of 
them being bent at a right angle. The 
right angle spoon is used to scrape out the 
weld, while the straight spoon is for work- 
ing into shape the new material that has 
been added into the weld. 

In practice an operator starts heating 
the metal and when he thinks it is about 
the melting point he tries it with the right 



118 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

angle spoon. If it is, the skin or oxide and 
any dirt that may be present is carefully 
scraped out for a distance of an inch or 
two. The spoon is then dropped and the 
filler rod is quickly taken up and material 
added. 

The straight spoon is then substituted 
for the filler and the metal is worked and 
shaped. When this is finished another 
inch or two is started and continued until 
the entire crack is welded. 

Welding aluminum by means of a flux is 
a more recent method. The aluminum is 
heated to the melting point, as is likewise 
the filler rod, when the latter is dipped into 
the flux and is then brought into contact 
with the molten metal at the weld. When 
the weld is cold, the flux should be washed 
off with water and a brush. 

Either of these methods is good. The 
first has the advantage of looks, while the 
latter has that of speed; the strength of 
each is about the same. The third method 
is rather fancied by the writer for repair 
work. It is really a combining of the two 
above-mentioned methods. 

The spoon is used to clean out the weld. 
The flux method is then used, and when a 
few inches of welding is done, we revert 
back to the puddling method and use the 
flat spoon for shaping and finishing up the 
work. 



Welding of Different Metals 119 

WELDING MALLEABLE IRON 

Malleable iron is practically cast-iron 
that has been annealed. If it is a thin cast- 
ing this heat treatment tends to transform 
the entire piece into a semi-steel, but if the 
casting is fairly thick we may expect only 
the outer portion to have been affected. 

Beginners usually experience consider- 
able difficulty in detecting a piece of malle- 
able. Occasionally an experienced man 
will be fooled. If the casting is not very 
thick the color of the metal at the break will 
be white in the center with a very narrow 
dark ring around the outside. If the cast- 
ing is fairly thick, the center portion will 
appear cindery. When the torch is ap- 
plied it is comparatively easy to recognize 
it. When first heated it sparks a little, so 
that you know it is not cast-iron. When 
it commences to melt, blow-holes invari- 
ably form. Some still cling to the notion 
that it can be successfully welded with 
steel or with cast-iron. This is not true. 
Whenever steel or cast-iron is used on 
malleable it shows a lack of knowledge of 
the business. Whenever it becomes neces- 
sary to melt malleable iron, upon cooling 
it will be converted into a very poor grade 
of cast-iron. 

The only successful method of joining 
two broken pieces of malleable is by braz- 



120 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

ing. This lias been proven to be entirely 
satisfactory from a standpoint of strength, 
if the work is properly carried out. The 
work should be cleaned and beveled. 
Tobin bronze or high-grade brazing wire is 
used in conjunction with a flux. The mal- 
leable iron should not be heated to the melt- 
ing point, a bright red or at the most a 
white heat being employed. To start the 
braze, the writer prefers the use of spel- 
ter, which in this part of the country is the 
name for fine particles of brass mixed with 
a flux. This is sprinkled on the beveled 
edges and coats the edges with a thin layer 
of brass. We then take the Tobin bronze 
rod and finish by using it as filler, using it 
rapidly. 

WELDING OF LEAD OR LEAD BURNING 

Lead burning, as it is commonly called, 
is really the first form of autogenous weld- 
ing. As the melting point is low, a tip 
which gives an exceedingly small flame is 
used. The edges to be welded should be 
cleaned and scraped until bright. Since 
the electric starter and electric lights are 
almost universally used on automobiles, a 
lead burning outfit is now almost a neces- 
sity for the garage in the repair of bat- 
teries. 

While excellent work is done with oxy- 
acetylene, ordinary coal gas and oxygen 



Welding of Different Metals 121 

is used with splendid results. In some 
cases the coal gas is compressed into tanks, 
but in the majority of cases a special de- 
signed torch is used which permits of tak- 
ing the coal gas direct from the city main 
at a pressure of only a few ounces. Very 
little skill is required for average work. 
Ordinary clean lead cut into strips from a 
sheet or just scraps is used as a filler. 

For lead burning of chemical tanks or 
containers it is sometimes necessary to do 
vertical work. This requires considerable 
practice. It may be well to state, how- 
ever, that a vertical weld is never so good 
as a horizontal one and the natural infer- 
ence is that whenever it is possible in work 
of this character, the tank should be laid 
on its side so that the work can be done in 
a horizontal position. 



CHAPTER VII 

WELDING OF SHEET-METAL AND PIPE. 

Welding of Sheet Iron — Welding of Connections — Ma- 
chine Welding of Sheet Metal — Welding of Gas, 
Ammonia, Air, Steam Pipes, Water Pipes and Mains 
— Tests and Costs of Same — Illustrations of Welding. 

For the welding of very thin sheet iron, 
say from No. 22 gauge to No. 28 gauge, 
it is rather difficult to make a butt weld, 
for the reason that almost as soon as the 
metal is in a molten state, a hole has burned 

Fig. 17 

This shows a butt weld, with edges beveled on one side. For 
metal of V s inch in thickness or less it is not necessary or de- 
sirable to bevel. The dotted line indicates the metal which has 
been added from the filler rod. 

through which is difficult to patch. It will 
be found best to turn up the edges so that 
a flange of as low a height as possible is 
secured. Clamps should be used to hold 
the metal even and the flange should be 

:K 

Fig. 18 

This shows a butt weld on metal V2 inch in thickness or more. 

In this case the bevel is from both sides. This is desirable if 

both sides are accessible. 

" spotted' ' or " tacked' ' at intervals of 

about four or five inches. No filler rod is 
122 



Welding of Sheet-Metal and Pipe 123 

used, as the flanges upon being melted down 
supply the necessary material. Some 
knowledge of sheet iron work is necessary 
in order to properly make the flange. 

For sheet iron of slightly greater thick- 
ness, say Nos. 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 gauge, 
the welds can be made in several ways. It 
can be done by means of a flange as indi- 
cated above for very light metal ; it can be 
butt welded either with or without a filler 
rod or it can be welded with a flange dif- 
fering somewhat from that mentioned 
above. 



IP 



Fig. 19 

This illustrates two lap-welded joints, one in which the weld 

is made only from one side and the other where it was made 

from both sides. Ordinarily this is not a desirable way to make 

a weld with the torch, but occasion will sometimes demand it. 

The above applies to the welding of ir- 
regular shapes and small articles. If the 
welding is on sheets formed as tanks or 
containers, and the task is a quantity 
proposition, more detailed information is 
necessary. As previously stated, when 
welding No. 20 gauge metal or higher it is 
better to flange the edge. On this light 
metal it is difficult to make the flange cor- 
rectly ; in fact, it cannot be done in a ma- 
chine, owing to a tendency of the metal to 
draw. The most satisfactory method is 



124 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

to tightly fasten the sheet in a clamp, al- 
lowing about 1/32 of an inch to extend be- 
yond the clamps, and then turn the flanges 
with a coarse hie. This flange will be at 
an angle of about 45 degrees, but as the 
metal increases in thickness the flange will 
be straighter until in No. 16 gauge and 
heavier it will be almost at a right angle, 
and it will be found to be easier to make. 

no 



Fig. 20 

This shows sheet metal flanged preparatory to welding and also 
the appearance of the sheet after the weld has been executed. 
It is to be noted that in the illustration the height of the flange 
is little more than the thickness of the metal. When edges are 
prepared in this manner, the molten metal of the flange flows 
onto and incorporates with the metal of the sheet beyond the 
knuckle of the flange. In some cases the flange is made quite 
high — from X A " to % " — and of course just the edges are melted 
together. 

For flanging No. 20 gauge and heavier 
an old press, working on the same 
principle as a square shear, can be 
utilized. It will have one sharp and one 
dull die ; the dull one being on top and the 
sharp one on the bottom. As the dull die 
comes down it forms the edge or flange. 
The top or dull die is set back, leaving a 
gap, the width of which is equal to the 
thickness of the metal. As an example, for 
No. 16 gauge metal, it would be set back 
1/16 of an inch. Welds made with the metal 
formed in this manner are to be preferred 



Welding of Sheet -Metal and Pipe 125 

to a butt weld even with a filler added, as 
the weld is made faster, it is stronger, as 
considerably more metal of the same stock 
is^in the weld and in numerous tests made 
with the same metal, operator, etc., where 
all factors were the same, there were less 
leakers. 




Fig. 21 

This shows one method of welding in the heads or bottoms of 

round, tanks made from light stock. The edge of the head is- 

flanged and the two edges are fused together. 

Regardless as to whether the weld is a 
flange or butt, it is advisable to have clamps 
or what the trade calls stakes, for holding 
the edges. 

Usually an old railroad rail is utilized 
for the mandrel portion of the stake. The 
ball or top is machined so that the sheets 
will be level. In the middle of the top a 
longitudinal slot is cut about y 2 -inch wide 
and %-inch deep. The edges of the sheet 
are placed directly over this slot, its object 
being to prevent the heavy rail from con- 
ducting the heat away. Clamps are neces- 
sary to hold the sheets in position on the 
mandrel. They are made of two pieces 



126 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

fastened together at each end and so ar- 
ranged that the outer end can be lifted to 
allow of the introduction and removal of 
the sheets. The bottom of these clamps is 
machined flat and the inner edge of each 
clamp is beveled off so as to permit of the 
introduction of the welding flame. The 
clamps should be separated about one inch. 




This is the same edge to edge welding and simply shows how the 
ends of square tanks can be welded. 

This depends somewhat on the thickness 
of the metal being welded, widening the 
clamps for the heavier metal and bringing 
them closer together for the light stock. 
For a butt weld, the edges should be put 
into actual contact at the end where weld- 
ing is started and they should be separated 
at the other end. The distance of separa- 
tion depends upon the length of the weld, 
the thickness of the metal and the speed 
of the operator. No hard and fast rule can 
be given, but for a tank 34 inches long 
made of No. 16 gauge metal it is usually 



Welding of Sheet-Metal and Pipe 12? 

spread % of an inch and for No. 18 gauge 
metal the same length, it is spread about 
3/16 of an inch. 




Fig. 23 

This shows a dished and flanged head of a round receptacle 
in position and partly -welded. If the tank is under only a slight 
pressure the weld can be made at the knuckle of the flange. If 
the tank is for high pressure the weld should be made farther 
down and nearer the edge of the flange. 



Some writers have fixed 2y 2 % of the 
running length of the weld as the distance 
the sheet should be spread, but this is often 
erroneous. As the weld progresses, the 
sheets come together. 

WELDING OF CONNECTIONS 

In almost all containers, one or more con- 
nections are necessary. A pipe nipple is 
used, and for the sake of economy is usually 
cut in two in the middle, thus making two. 
It is then put in a lathe and a cut taken on 
the inside threaded portion, leaving a 
shoulder about y 8 of an inch thick and 3/16 
of an inch high. The hole in the tank is 
flanged out and when in position for weld- 
ing we have the edge of the sheet and the 



128 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

thin edge or shoulder on the nipple adja- 
cent. No filler is used. The two edges 
are simply melted down and an entirely 
satisfactory connection is made. (Fig. 27.) 




Fig. 24 

This shows a dished head without a flange in position and partly 

welded. This method is not recommended where the container is 

subjected to high pressures. 



MACHINE WELDING OF SHEET-METAL. 

Machine welding can be employed in the 
manufacture of certain articles made from 
rather thin sheet-metal. Naturally, in 
order to be practical, it must be a repeat 
or quantity proposition. These machines 
are either automatic or semi-automatic. 
For pipe of small diameter, wind shield 
frames, etc., the metal is of thin gauge and 
the operation consists of an autogenous 
butt weld in combination with pressure. 
This last is important. The two edges to 
be welded are mechanically brought to- 
gether so that they are even and in per- 
fect alignment, and at the instant the oxy- 
acetylene flame produces fusion of the 
metal on top, rollers or shives engage both 
sides of the tube, pressing or squeezing the 



Welding of Sheet-Metal and Pipe 129 

molten edges together. In practice the tube 
or frame is formed and welded in one op- 
eration. The work and not the torch moves. 
Strips of sheet metal are cut as long as 
desired, care being taken that the cut is 



4 ft. 



*$ fe 



Fig. 25 
This shows two ways of welding fittings or connections in tanks. 

even and the width of the sheet the same 
throughout. It is then formed by being 
drawn through dies, the position of the two 
edges being on top so that they will come 
under the flame. As the tube progresses 
towards the torch it is guided by several 
pairs of shives or rollers, one set of which 
is located at a point where the flame touches 
the metal. 

The object of this particular set of shives 
is twofold, first to guide the tube, and sec- 
ond to press in on the sides and squeeze 
the metal together. Other sets of shives 
may be arranged behind the flame to 
straighten the tube should there be a tend- 
ency towards distortion. At the present 



130 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

time no real success has been obtained in 
an effort to automatically butt weld thin 
sheets when the diameter of the cylinder 
was in excess of 12 inches. On the other 
hand, the automatic welding of thin sheets 
is entirely practical, regardless as to the 
diameter, if the edges are flanged. This is 
comparatively simple whether the vessel 
is cylindrical or square. ' Sometimes the 
flanges are tacked by hand at two or three 



Fig. 26 



For divisions in tanks or where top or bottom is required to be 

set in from end this illustrates a very good way. The weld should 

be made on the flange near the knuckle. 



points before the actual welding begins. In 
this case, the torch and not the work 
travels. The torch is screw driven and 
some experimenting is necessary in order 
to determine the size tip necessary, the 
angle it should take, and the speed it should 
travel. For boxes and some cylinders no 
clamping or supporting devices are neces- 



Welding of Sheet-Metal and Pipe 131 

sary. It is necessary to provide some 
means for forcing together the two edges 
of the flange immediately in front of the 
flame. In some cases this is done by means 
of a set of rollers that immediately precede 
the flame, traveling automatically with 
the torch ; in others this is done by an op- 
erator using a pair of pliers that is pro- 
vided with a couple of small rollers. 

Most automatic machines are limited as 
to the scope of work which they will ac- 
complish, but for the particular duty for 
which they are designed they will do 
beautiful, strong, rapid and cheap work. 




Fig. 27 
Nipple machined and in position to weld. 

In some instances it is advisable to use 
a water-cooled tip, but for most work this 
is not necessary. The necessity for a water- 
cooled tip is greater where low pressure 
acetylene is used, in view of the fact that a 
considerable variance in the flame of a low 
pressure torch is noted upon the tip be- 
coming heated. On the other hand, where 
high pressure acetylene is used, more at- 
tention must be given to the regulators 
to see that they are operating accurately. 



132 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

WELDING OF GAS, AMMONIA, AIR, STEAM AND 
WATER PIPES AND MAINS 

During the past two years, the oxy-acety- 
lene torch has been used quite extensively 
for the welding of pipes and mains. 




Fig. 28 
This shows special joint on gas main made by welding. 

In the West, in some instances, hundreds 
of miles of pipe have been laid without a 
threaded connection, while in many cities 
this class of welding has reached consider- 
able proportions. It has been demon- 
strated that the strength of the weld can 
easily be made greater than that of an un- 
welded pipe and the cost of the welded 
connection is less than the cost of the 
screwed connection. There is also no dan- 
ger of leakage. Where pipe is welded a 
much lighter wall is permissible, as no 
allowance need be made in its thickness for 
threading. This permits of a considerable 
saving and at least one company is now 



Welding of Sheet-Metal and Pipe 133 

advertising a pipe having extra thin walls 
for welding. By specifying, the mills will 
furnish the pipe with the ends beveled at 
no extra cost. In practice the work is done 
as follows : 

The pipe is laid end to end on top of 




Fig. 29 
This shows special "Y" joint on gas mains made by welding. 

the ground. If the ground is uneven it 
is best that they be supported by 2x4 's in 
order that they can be easily turned. If 
the pipes are cut at a bevel, the ends are 
butted together. If, however, the pipes are 
cut off straight a space of from 1/16 to 



134 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

14 -inch, is allowed according to the size of 
the pipe. In addition to the welder, two 
helpers are furnished. They are stationed 
one at each end of the section and their 




Fig. 30 

This shows reducer made on gas main by welding ; flange is also 
welded on to pipe. 

duty is to turn the pipe with tongs as the 
welding progresses, always permitting the 
operator to weld on top of the pipe, as 
greater speed can be made. The pipe 



Welding of Sheet-Metal and Pipe 135 

should be turned towards the welder. Hose 
of sufficient length should be provided so 




This shows a spiral coil made of continuous lengths of pipe, 

homogeneously welded and bent into shape. These coils are used 

in lefrigerating systems. 

that he may weld from either side of the 
pipe. Ordinarily, pipe comes in about 20- 



136 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

foot lengths, but for welding purposes it 
can be procured in 40-foot lengths, thereby 
reducing the connections. In cities, the 
number of lengths that can be welded to- 




Fig. 32 

This shows 37 feet of pipe, originally in two pieces but welded 

together in the center and bent to form an expansion loop. The 

weld can be seen just above the crane hook. 

gether is usually limited by the length of 
the blocks, but in the country quite fre- 
quently lengths of 1,000 feet or more are 



Welding of Sheet-Metal and Pipe 137 

welded together before rolling into the 
trench. 

The welding of two sections in the trench 
is more difficult. This weld must of neces- 
sity be a stationary one, so a pit must be 
dug of sufficient size to permit the operator 




Fig. 33 

This shows a welded drip composed of 16-inch pipe. This not 

only makes a better job but on this drip there was a saving of 

$450.00 over the old method. 

— Courtesy of National Tube Company. 

to work on both sides and under the pipe. 
The welding at this connection consists of 
% horizontal, % vertical and % overhead, 
but with practice this is easily accom- 
plished. It follows that all sorts of tees, 
angles, reducers and connections can be 
welded. 



138 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

It may be of interest to give the result 
of some tests showing the relative strength 
of welded and screwed pipe connections. 



Pipe Size Dia. Welded Connection 

V 2 in. 12250 pounds 

% in. 21276 pounds 

1 in. 29810 pounds 

lYz in. 44120 pounds 



Screwed Connection 

8560 pounds 

12640 pounds 

17560 pounds 

31440 pounds 




Fig. 34 

This gives some idea of the appearance of a cross in an S-inch 
main when welded. 



The cost of welding depends upon the 
skill of the welder, the efficiency of the 
apparatus and also upon local conditions. 



Welding of Sheet-Metal and Pipe 139 

If not delayed too much in moving from 
one point to another, a competent man will 
weld as follows : 

10 to 12 joints of 2 inch pipe per hour 
5 to 6 joints of 3 inch pipe per hour 
3 to 4 jonits of 4 inch pipe per hour 
2 to 3 joints of 6 inch pipe per hour 
1 joint of 8 inch pipe in about 40 min. 
1 joint of 12 inch pipe in about 1 hour 




Fig. 35 

This shows a 3-inch lateral welded to an 8-inch main; 
operation for the oxy-acetylene torch. 



a simple 



A comparison of the cost of joints of 
different size welded and with threaded 
couplings follows : 

Size of Pipe y 2 " %" 1" \y 2 " 2' 3" 4" 

Butt Welded Joints $0.03 .04 .05 .07 .10 .18 .30 
Threaded Couplings $0.04 .05 .07 .11 .15 .32 .52 



140 Occy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

Attention is directed to the fact that as 
the pipe sizes increase, the advantage of a 
lower cost for the welded joint is very much 
greater. 

It follows that the welding of steam, air 
and water pipes in industrial plants, rail- 
road shops, yards, etc., is entirely feasible 
and in a great many instances preferable 
to threaded connections. As an example, 
the Terminal Railroad Association of St. 
Louis have welded all of the pipes running 
through their yards. The St. Louis Re- 
frigerating & Cold Storage Company 
welded a great many miles of their street 
ammonia pipes and the results are so satis- 
factory that they are replacing the screwed 
connections with welded joints as rapidly 
as possible. 



CHAPTER VIII 

BOILER WELDING. 

Fire Box Welded to a Height of Three Feet— All Welded 
Fire Box — All Welded Door and Flue Sheets — Weld- 
ing Less Than Full Door Sheets — Welding of a 
Simple Crack, Patch, Cracks in the Throat Sheet of 
Boiler, Cracks in Side Sheets, Patches in Fire Sheets 
— Welding of Door Collars, Door Holes, Caulking 
Edge — Welding Sheet to Mud-Ring — Welding Loco- 
motive Flues. 

Probably in no field of welding has ad- 
vancement been faster or the application 
greater than in the repair of boilers. 
Cracks, patches and entire sheets are now 
welded with complete snccess. Naturally, 
there are various ways of doing this weld- 
ing, and it follows that practical men will 
frequently conscientiously differ as to 
which method is the best. It is the desire 
of the author to give to you at least one 
way of doing the work well. If you can 
improve over it, so much the better. 

The first job we will discuss is the weld- 
ing of a half side sheet in a locomotive fire 
box. With the exception of the side which 
is to be welded the new sheet is prepared 
exactly as though it were to be riveted in. 
When possible, all stay bolts should be put 
in, with the exception of a row on each 
side of the weld. The mud ring and the 

141 



142 Occy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

door and flue sheets can be riveted in, 
leaving two or three rivets on each side 
of the weld so that the flange can be raised 
up to allow the sheet to be welded under- 
neath. 

If the front and flue sheets are old ones 
this can be omitted and the flange welded 
to the side sheet for six or more inches 
each way. The rivets should be put in 
after welding. While it is usually more 
convenient to put in at one time all of 
the stay bolts and rivets, with the excep- 
tions noted above, it is not necessary, and 
it can be dispensed with, excepting one 
row of stay bolts which hold the edges to- 
gether. No bad effects will follow, the 
sheet will not draw up a bit and the rivet 
holes in the mud ring and the stay bolt 
holes will line up perfectly. Of course, the 
edges of the new and the old sheet where 
the weld is to be made are beveled so that 
they form an angle of 90 degrees. A space 
or opening about %" wide is allowed be- 
tween the two sheets. The new sheet is 
cut to allow for this, if not a ripping tool 
is used to provide it. When the sheet is 
properly fitted the welding is begun. It 
will now be necessary to refer to Fig. 36, 
which represents a side sheet ready for 
welding. The edge next to and under the 
flange No. 1 is first welded. We then move 
ahead about ten inches to No. 2 and weld 



Boiler Welding 143 

back to No. 1, then go to No. 3 and weld 
back to No. 2, and so on across the sheet. 
It is sometimes necessary to have a pinch 
bar to pull the edges in line; otherwise, 
there will be no trouble with the welding. 

Dozens of sheets have been welded in 
this way without any trouble, except in 
the case of a green man who was not able 
to make a weld. One advantage is, the 



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Fig. 36 
Boiler Side Sheet. 

welder can stop at any time without any 
trouble. 

There are two other methods used in 
welding in side sheets, which the writer 
does not like so well, but which are used 
by others with from fair to good results. 



144 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

The first consists in dropping one end 
of the sheet about 2% of the running 
length. This was perhaps the first method 
used in this country and some still cling to 
it. If the sheet is dropped the correct dis- 
tance, it will pull up into place as the weld- 
ing progresses. The trouble, however, is 
due to the fact that there can be no fixed 
rule for determining how much the sheet 
should be dropped for each individual 
welder. The reason is that this distance 
which the sheet is dropped is determined 
to a very considerable extent by the speed 
of the welder, and no two men weld at the 
same speed. 

The other method consists in putting in 
the new sheet as though it were to be riv- 
eted. The stay bolts are put in except the 
two or three rows at the top near the line 
of the weld. Bolts are put through the 
outer sheet and forced against the new 
sheet. This shoves the new sheet away 
from the line of the weld. Another bolt 
is nearer the edge to be welded and it 
extends to the outer sheet. An assistant 
on the outside tightens this bolt and pulls 
the new sheet back into position. By doing 
this a corrugation or hump is produced 
in the new sheet just below the line of the 
weld. The welding can progress from 
either end, and as it does the bolts should 
be released, with the result that the con- 



Boiler Welding 



145 



traction pulls the corrugation out, leaving 
the sheet straight and in good shape. 

FIRE-BOX WELDED TO A HEIGHT OF THREE FEET 

As there is considerable leakage around 
the rivets which come in contact with the 
fire, it has been found desirable at times to 
weld the fire-box for a height of about three 
feet. 

In Fig. 37 we show such a fire-box with 
the door sheet fitted to be welded to the 
side sheets for a distance of about three 




feet above the mud-ring. In preparing the 
flue and door sheets, no rivet holes should 
be punched where the welding is to be done 
(Fig. 38). The beveling is to be done as 
for any other welding operation, with 



146 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

about a 3/16" opening at the bottom of the 
"V". The fire-box should be assembled as 
usual, putting in the mud-ring bolts as 
usual and riveting the flue and door sheets 
together. Two or three rivets adjacent to 
weld No. 1, Fig. 37, should be left out. A 
No. 6 or No. 7 welding tip of any good 
medium pressure torch should be used in 
conjunction with either 3/16" or 14" Weld- 
ing Wire. - 

The first procedure is to make a "tack" 
or weld about 1" or 2" long at No. 1, then 
lift the torch and start welding at No. 2 



2 



3 



g^ o o °o o o o 



Fig. 38 
Preparing Door Sheet for Welding. 

in the direction of No. 1. When this is 
finished start at No. 3 and weld to No. 2 
and continue in this manner until the seam 
is welded to top of mud-ring at No. 4. The 
weld should then be completed from the 



Boiler Welding 



147 



inside of the fire-box by welding from 
No. 5 to No. 4. 

When possible, the welding shonld be 
done from the water side and finished from 
the fire-box side, using another operator as 




Fig. 3L 
Preparing Flue Sheet and Door Sheet for All- Welded Fire-Box. 

indicated under instructions for an All 
Welded Fire-Box. 




Fig. 40 

Flue Sheet Flanged at Crown Sheet to Take in a Row of 

Radial Stay Bolts. 



148 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 



ALL-WELDED FIRE-BOX 

In preparing for an all-welded fire-box 
the fine and door sheets should be flanged 
at least 2y 2 " deep, as shown in Fig. 39. It 
is desirable to flange the flue sheet at the 
crown sheet to take in a row of radial stay- 
bolts, as shown in Fig. 40. The fire-box 
should be fitted to the mud-ring in the 
usual manner, putting bolts on each side 
of the weld near the edge. Bevel each edge 
to an angle of 45 degrees so as to form a 
<( V" of 90 degrees with a 3/16" opening at 




Fig. 41 
All- Welded F ire-Box. 



the bottom. Select a No. 6 or No. 7 welding 
tip of any standard medium pressure torch. 
The weld should be made from the water 
side, except at the mud-ring " A ' ' and " B, ' ' 
Fig. 41. At these points it should be bev- 



Boiler Welding 



149 



eled and welded from the inside of the fire- 
box. Norway welding wire of either 3/16" 
or % " diameter should be nsed. A special 
Vanadium steel is preferred by some. The 
weld should be built up so that it is some- 
what thicker than the sheet. 

We now come to the welding proper. The 
first operation consists in welding one or 
two inches at No. 1, just above the mud- 
ring. (See Fig. 41.) The sheets at the 
weld are laid off into sections of about 8" 
or 10" in length ; these sections being shown 
by the numerals No. 1 to No. 15 and No. 1 to 




Fig. 42 
Preparation of Flanges for All- Welded Door and Flue Sheets. 

No. 17, respectively. After the first tack or 
weld has been made, the torch is lifted and 
the weld started at No. 2 working towards 
No. 1. When this 8" or 10" is completed, we 
start at No. 3 and weld back to No. 2, con- 
tinuing in this manner until the seam is 
welded to the mud-ring at No. 15 or No. 17. 



150 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

Finish by making the welds at the mud- 
ring " A " to ' ' B ' \ Wherever possible, it is 
recommended that a second welder be used, 
working on the inside of the flue sheet at 
the same point and at the same speed as the 
head welder. This inside man will re- 
inforce and smooth over the weld from his 
side. 

ALL-WELDED DOOR AND FLUE SHEETS 

For this work the preparation consists in 
fitting the sheets to the mud-ring and bolt- 




Fig. 43 

All- Welded Door Sheet. 



ing securely. The edges should be beveled 
the same as for any other weld with an 



Boiler Welding 151 

opening 3/16" wide at the bottom. The 
flanges should be prepared as shown in 
Fig. 42. Select a No. 6 or No. 7 Welding 
Tip and use 3/16" or Vi" Welding Wire. 
Lay off the sheet into sections of approxi- 
mately equal distances of about 10" each, as 
shown in Fig. 43. Start the welding from 
the fire-box side by making a "tack" at 
No. 1 about 1" or 2" long. When this is 
done, lift the torch and start at No. 4 and 
weld up to No. 5. Then start at No. 3 and 
weld to No. 4 and continue in this manner 
until the last section No. 1 to No. 2 is 
welded. The last weld for this side is at 
"A". We now start on the crown sheet, 
beginning at No. 6 and welding to No. 5. 
This welding should be done from the 
water side unless the radial stay-bolts are 
in the door sheet, in which event work will 
be done from the inside of the fire-box. We 
next start welding at No. 7 and work back 
to No. 6, continuing in this manner until 
both crown and side sheet is welded, finish- 
ing No. 15 to No. 14. 

The last weld is made at the mud-ring 
"B." 

WELDING HALF-DOOR SHEETS 

There are some who attempt to weld in a 
door sheet with the flange riveted on the 
side sheet. We do not recommend this as 
good practice, believing it is better to 



152 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

either put in an entire new half-door sheet 
and rivet it to the side sheet, or to use an 
all welded door sheet as will be described 
below. 

Fig. 44 shows a half-door sheet in posi- 
tion for welding. In prerjaring the work, 
cut the end of side sheet to the inner edge 
of the rivet holes so that in fitting the door 
sheet will meet the edge of side sheet (Fig, 
45). Bevel edges to a "V" of 90 degrees 
with an opening of 3/16" at bottom. Put in 
all stay-bolts except for the row on both 




Fig. 44 
One-Half Door Sheet in Position to Weld. 

sides of the weld. Use a No. 6 or No. 7 
welding tip and either 3/16" or %" welding 



Boiler Welding 



153 



wire. Lay off the sheet into sections No 1 
to No. 16 as shown. Commence at No. 5 
and weld the upper and lower flanges of 
door sheet to side sheet. Then start at 
No. 4 and weld back to No. 5 and continue 
in this manner until the last section No. 1 
to No. 2 is completed when we make the 
mud-ring weld "A" to No. 1. 

We now jump to No. 6 and weld to No. 5, 
then No. 7 to No. 6, and so on until weld 
No. 12 to No. 11 is completed, when we weld 
the upper and lower flanges to the side 
sheet at No. 12. Then jump to No. 13 and 



Door *S beef /^^sS/de Sheet 



g 




Fig. 45 
Preparation of Door and Side Sheet. 

weld back to No. 12 and continue in this 
manner until section No. 16 to No. 15 is 
completed, when the final weld at the mud- 
ring ' ' B ' ' to No. 16 is made. 



154 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

WELDING LESS THAN FULL DOOE SHEET. 
HAVING SIDES RIVETED TO SIDE SHEETS 

In preparing, always cut the door sheet 
so that the weld will not come closer to the 
door hole than between the first and second 
row of stay-bolts. Bevel the edges to an 
angle of 90 degrees with an opening of 
3/16" at the bottom of the "V." Screw in 
all stay-bolts except a row on each side of 
the weld. Rivet door sheet to side sheets 
and mud-ring. 




Fig. 46 
Welded Door Sheet with Sides Riveted. 

Use 3/16" or Vi" welding rod and either 
No. 6 or No. 7 welding tip. Lay off the 
sheet at the weld into sections of about 10" 



Boiler Welding 155 

as indicated in Fig. 46. Weld flange at 
"A," then jump to No. 1 and weld back to 
"A," then to No. 2 and back to No. 1, then 
No. 3 to No. 2, No. 4 to No. 3, and so on 
until "B" to No. 6 has been welded, when 
final weld is made at flange " B. ' ' 

WELDING OF A SIMPLE CRACK 

The crack is prepared by being beveled 
to the usual 90 degree angle. A %-inch 
to i/4-inch opening is made at the bottom, 
depending upon the length of the crack, 
Before welding, heat in the line of the weld 
for several inches at the ends of the crack. 
This is done to expand the solid sheet and 
open the crack. If the crack is a short one 
of only a few inches, start at one end and 
finish up at the other and then heat a few 
inches beyond. 

If the crack is a long one, say 18 inches 
or more, instead of starting at the end, 
begin about 8 inches from the end, and 
weld back in exactly the same manner as 
indicated for welding in a side sheet. 

WELDING OF A PATCH 

In the welding of patches, it is preferable 
to use a triangular patch, with the corners 
slightly rounding, say about one inch 
radius. With this shape of patch there 
can be no parallel welds as is necessary 
with any other shape, and this is to be 
desired ; also there are only three sides or 



156 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

legs to weld. Each leg of the patch should 
be straight. The bad place is cut out with 
the cutting torch and the patch fitted in, 
first being prepared by beveling, etc., the 
same as was done in the case of the side 
sheet and the crack. 

By referring to Figs. 47 and 48, the man- 
ner in which the weld is made will be easier 
understood. 



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Fig. 47 
Welding Right Angle Patch. 

In Fig. 47, we show a patch in the form 
of a right angle triangle and in Fig. 48 the 
patch is an equilateral triangle. The weld- 
ing differs little in either. The welding 
is started at No. 2 and the weld is made 
towards No. 1, then we go to No. 3 and 
weld to No. 2, and from No. 4 to No. 3. 

It is then preferable to allow the weld to 
cool down, and then before starting weld- 



Boiler Welding 157 

ing heat in the line of the weld No. 4 to 
No. 7 for abont 6 inches at each end, as 
shown by XX. Then start welding at No. 
5 and weld to No. 4, jnmp to No. 6 and 
weld to No. 5, and finish this leg with a weld 
from No. 7 to No. 6. Then let this weld 
cool and before starting on the final leg 
heat in the line of the weld No. 7 to No. 1 
for about 6 inches as shown by XXX. In 



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Fig. 48 
Welding Equilateral Triangle Patch. 

making this final weld it is better, if pos- 
sible, to start at. No. 10 and weld to No. 1, 
then at No. 9 and weld to No. 10, and so on 
until completed. By doing this the weld is 
made upwards, which is faster and easier. 
Of course, conditions are sometimes such 
that this is not desirable. ' It is simply a 
matter of convenience. 



158 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

There are some who use a dished patch 
and others one with the edges corrugated. 
Undoubtedly patches made in this manner 
are at times of assistance to the welder, but 
the writer is strongly of the opinion that 
this is not necessary if the welding is done 
properly. An examination of a number of 
welds that proved defective, showed con- 
clusively in nearly every instance that 
either the welding or the judgment was 
poor, or both. Any boiler sheet should 
stand the shrinkage of one welded seam 
and if that weld is allowed to cool before 
the next weld is made there will only be 
the shrinkage of one weld to consider when 
the last weld is made. There should be 
very little strain in a weld when cold. 
Whenever a weld cracks immediately after 
welding while it is still hot, an indication 
that the weld is poorly made, it will be 
found that the crack opens widely, some- 
times as much as % of an inch. 

If the weld is properly made and it 
should crack, which will only happen after 
it becomes cold, it will be found to show as 
a very faint line. This shows that in cool- 
ing the metal in the good weld stretched 
considerably, whereas in the poor weld 
there was not sufficient strength to permit 
of the metal stretching. 



Boiler Welding 159 

WELDING CKACKS IN THE THROAT 
SHEET OF BOILER 

Cracks often form at the throat sheet. 
They usually begin at the water side. A 
great many consider it impossible to suc- 
cessfully weld cracks of this kind, and yet 
the writer knows thoroughly competent op- 
erators who are doing this with entire satis- 
faction. The work must be carefully done 
and the weld reinforced for about one inch 
on both sides of the line of the weld and be- 
yond the end of the crack, and when fin- 
ished, heated in the same line for some dis- 
tance each end of the weld. Where pos- 
sible the weld should be made on both the 
water side and the outside, but one side 
alone will do. 

WELDING CRACKS IN SIDE SHEETS EXTENDING 
THROUGH STAY BOLTS 

Considerable trouble has been experi- 
enced in the welding of cracks in sheets 
that extend through several stay-bolts. 
This trouble can be largely overcome by 
carefully following the directions as to 
preparation and at the same time making a 
good weld. Fig. 49 shows a crack extend- 
ing from stay-bolt No. 1, through No. 2 and 
as far as No. 3. This cut shows the crack 
and the stay-bolt holes beveled as is always 
done in preparing for welding. From a 



160 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting 



3/16 " thick plate cut three discs, each about 
14" smaller in diameter than the hole, 
beveling the edges and attach by welding 
to the center, an ordinary piece of welding 
wire. (See Fig. 50.) Place the disc in the 
center of the hole and "tack" it in position 
and then burn off the rod. Then weld the 
disc to sheet, filling it up until flush with 




Fig. 49 
"Welding Crack Extending Through Stay-Bolts. 

the sheet. "When this is done, heat at XXX 
"A," Fig. 49, and allow the heated portion 
and the weld to cool together. When cool, 
start at hole No. 2 and weld in like manner 
as before and continue by welding the 
crack from No. 2 to No. 1. 



Boiler Welding 



161 



Immediately start welding np hole No. 3, 
finishing the crack from No. 3 to No. 2. 

When completed, heat at XXX "B" and 
let cool. If the crack could be examined 
from the water side, in all probability a 




Fig. 50 
Rod Tacked to Disc for Holding. 

number of small cracks would be found 
running parallel to the main crack. When 
the contraction strains of the weld set in, 

gogogego 
o o o d o°o 

Fig. 51 
Cracked Bridges in Flue Sheet. 

one of these small cracks might open up 
unless the weld is reinforced or built up 
about %" higher and made 2" wide, which 
should always be done. 



162 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 



WELDING CRACKS IN BRIDGES OF ELTJE SHEET 

Where one or two cracked bridges ap- 
pear, recourse to a patch is not necessary. 
In Fig. 51 we show bridges cracked at No. 
1 and No. 2. The cracks should be pre- 
pared by beveling, but the open space at 
the bottom need not be quite so wide as in 
the case of preceding welds, %" being suf- 
ficient. A No. 6 tip should be used with 
3/16" welding wire. It is preferable to 



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oxo 



cP6°b° 

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Fig. 52 
Laying Off Patch in Center of Flue Sheet. 



o 
o 
o 
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o 
o 



make the weld from the water side, using 
an extra welder on the fire-box side to work 
in conjunction with the head welder. 
Build up the weld about 3/32" heavier than 
the sheet. 



Boiler Welding 163 

For either weld No. 1 or No. 2, we start 
the w^ork by heating the bridges marked 
"X" and then proceed with the weld. 
"When the welding is finished again heat 
the bridges marked "X." 

#°o ooSoXd 
°X°go9o°o9o 

oifo u 



Fig. 53 
Laying Off Patch at Top of Flue Sheet. 

WELDING PATCH IN CENTER OF FLUE SHEET 

The writer is an advocate of the trian- 
gular patch and where a number of cracks 
or erosions appear in the bridges of the 
flue sheet, it is advisable to use a patch and 



164 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

not try to weld each individual crack. Fig. 
52 shows a portion of a flue sheet that has 
had the cracks cut out and a triangular 
patch fitted in ready for welding. The 
preparation as to beveling, size of welding 
tip and wire is the same as for a crack. 

Before starting welding, heat each cor- 
ner and also the bridges marked "X." 
Then weld the bridges No. 1 and No. 2, 
No. 3 and No. 4 and No. 5 and No. 6, and 
again heat the corners and the bridges 
marked "X." Then weld the bridges No. 
7, No. 8 and No. 9 and continue in this man- 
ner until the patch is entirely welded. 

WELDING PATCH AT TOP OF FLUE SHEET 

Where the cracks or corroded places ap- 
pear at the top of the flue sheet and are so 
bad and of such an extent that a patch is 
desirable, it is advisable to include the 
knuckle. In Fig. 53 we have shown such a 
patch fitted and ready for welding. Ordi- 
narily we would prefer the triangular 
patch, with the bottom of the " V" at No. 1, 
but it is always desirable that the operators 
know how to make more than one kind of 
a patch. The flue holes should be put in as 
shown, the edges beveled and the size tip 
and welding wire used as indicated in the 
preceding articles. If possible, make the 
weld from the water side, using another 
welder on the opposite side. "We start by 



Boiler Welding 



165 



welding the bridges No. 1, then jump to 
No. 2 and weld towards No. 1, then to No. 
3, finishing at No. 1 ; then from No. 4 to 
No. 2 and from No. 5 to No. 3 and continue 
in this manner until the welding of the 
bridges is completed at No. 8 and No. 9. 
The operation is completed by welding the 
flanges No. 10 and No. 11. 




Fig. 54 
Laying Off Patch Extending from Side Sheet to Door Sheet. 

DOUBLE MUD-RING PATCH 

The first mud -ring patch that we will 
describe is one that is made to take in both 
sheets and is known as a double mud-ring 
patch. Fig. 54 shows such a patch and it 
is important that it should be shaped ex- 
actly as indicated in the cut. It is fitted in 
position and riveted to the mud-ring, omit- 
ting the rivets next to the weld. Edges 



166 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

are to be beveled as usual, leaving a 3/16" 
opening at the bottom of the "V." Start 
the welding at mud-ring "A" and when 
this is finished move to No. 2 and weld to 
No. 1. Then move to No. 3 and make the 
flange weld and when this is completed, 
continue the weld to No. 2. Proceed in like 
manner with the sections No. 4 to No. 3 
and No. 5 to No. 4. The final weld is at 
the mud-ring "B." 




Laying Off Mud ring Patch Taking in Door Sheet and Part 
or All of Both Side Sheets. 

MUD-KING PATCH EXTENDING AROUND FIRE- 
BOX 

In Fig. 55 we show a patch fitted into 
position in which the patch extends around 
three sides of the fire-box. The legs or 
ends of the patch can be made to take in 
a part or the entire length of the side sheets 
as occasion requires. It is preferable to 
taper considerably the ends No. 2 to "A" 
and No. 9 to "B," although not absolutely 
necessary. Edges are beveled as usual and 
patch laid off into sections of about 8" or 
10" as indicated in sketch. We first weld 



Boiler Welding 



167 



the mud-ring at "A" and then start at No. 
2 and weld to No. 1. If this part of the 
patch is on a considerable taper, we can 
immediately start welding at No. 3 and 
work back to No. 2, but if the taper is 
rather abrupt, the weld at No. 2 to No. 1 
should be allowed to cool to take care of 
the shrinkage, before starting at No. 3. 




Fig. 5( 
Preparing for Welded Door Collars. 

When this weld is made, jump to No. 4 
and weld to No. 3 and continue in this man- 
ner until completed. 

WELDING OF DOOR COLLARS 

For this job, the first thing to do is to 



168 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

lay off the door sheet so that when it is cut 
one row of stay-bolts will be around the 
door collar as shown by the black dots in 
Fig. 56. The cutting torch should be used. 
Bevel the edges as usual, leaving a 3/16" 
space at the bottom between the sheet and 



pook 




Fig. 57 
Collar Corrugation for Shrinkage. 

the collar. A corrugation should be put 
around the collar, to allow for shrinkage 
when cooling. (See Fig. 57.) Use 3/16" 
or 14" welding wire and a No. 6 welding 
tip. 



Boiler Welding 



169 



Lay off the collar into sections of about 
6" to 10", depending upon the size of the 
collar, the larger engines naturally taking 
the longer sections. 

We first weld the section No. 2 to No. 3 
and when finished heat the corrugation; 



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O 


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repari 


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Fig. 58 
ng Door Holes for Welding 





then start on the opposite side and weld 
from No. 6 to No. 7, always heating the 
corrugation and adjoining after finishing 
the weld. We next weld section No. 4 to 



170 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

No. 5 and heat corrugation ; again start on 
the opposite side and weld section No. 1 
to No. 8 and heat corrugation. Then weld 
sections No. 1 to No. 2, No. 5 to No. 6, No. 3 
to No. 4 and No. 7 to No. 8 in the order 
given, always heating the corrugation after 
finishing each weld. 

It is best to reinforce the weld so that 
it is somewhat thicker than the sheet. 

WELDED DOOR HOLES 

In Fig. 58 we show a door hole laid off 
into sections preparatory to welding. The 
edges of the two sheets should be beveled 
and prepared for a butt weld, although 
there are some who use a lap weld. By the 
time an operator is sufficiently proficient 
to do this class of work he certainly knows 
the difference between a butt and a lap 
weld, but if there is any doubt in the mat- 
ter, Fig. 17 on page 122 shows a butt weld 
and Fig. 19, page 123, shows the lap weld. 

For door holes the butt weld is prefer- 
able. If instructions are followed, no 
shrinkage troubles will be encountered. 
Use 3/16" or %" welding wire and build up 
weld thicker than sheet. 

To start this job we first make a "tack" 
about 1" long at No. 1 and then jump to 
No. 2 and weld back to No. 1. Lift the 
torch and start at No. 3 and weld to No. 2 
and continue in this manner until the sec- 



Boiler Welding 171 

tion No. 5 to No. 4 has been completed. We 
now start at No. 8 and weld to No. 1, and 
then section No. 7 to No. 8, No. 6 to No. 7 
and No. 5 to No. 6. 

WELDING HORIZONTAL CRACK IN THE 
KNUCKLE OF FLUE SHEET 

A crack that is frequently met with is 
one in the knuckle of the flue sheet. In 
Fig. 59 we shoAV such a crack running hori- 
zontally, which should be beveled so as to 




Fig. 59 
Horizontal Crack in Flue Sheet Knuckle. 

have a "V" of 90 degrees, cutting out the 
metal at the bottom of the "V" so as to 
leave an opening or clear space of 3/16". 
Lay the crack off into sections of about 8" 
or 10" as shown in cut. Use same size 
welding tip and wire as in ordinary boiler 
work. When possible, it should be welded 
from the water side. 

Commence by heating the sheet beyond 
the crack at XXX No. 1. When about a 
red heat, start welding at No. 1, making a 



172 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

weld of about 1" where beveled and extend 
the weld over the unbeveled sheet at XXX 
for a distance of 1" or 2". "When this is 
done, jump to No. 2 and weld to No. 1, then 
to No. 3 to No. 2 and No. 4 to No. 3 and 
finish by heating at XXX No. 4. Build the 
weld up so that it is somewhat thicker than 
the sheet itself and at the same time make 
the weld at least iy 2 " wide. 




Fig. 60 
Vertical Crack in Flue Sheet Knuckle. 

WELDING VERTICAL CRACK IN KNUCKLE OF 

FLUE SHEET 

In Fig. 60 is shown a vertical crack in 
the knuckle of the flue sheet extending 
from a flue hole to the crown sheet. This 
is extremely simple. Bevel as you have 
been instructed in all of preceding work 
and start welding the crack at the flue hole, 
working towards the crown sheet. Weld 
from the water side. 

WELDING PATCH IN FLUE SHEET 

In Fig. 61 we show a crack that has been 



Boiler Welding 



173 



cut out and a patch in place ready to weld. 
Patch is beveled and fitted. We start 
welding at No. 1 and work towards "A." 
"When the flange at "A" has been finished, 
start at No. 2 and weld to No. 1, then No. 3 
to No. 2, No. 4 to No. 3, No. 5 to No. 4, 




Fig. 61 
Welding Patch at Edge of Flue Sheet. 

finishing the work by welding the flange 
"B." No trouble should be experienced.. 

WELDING A CAULKING EDGE 

In Fig. 62 we have tried to show an edge 
that has been cut away by continued caulk- 
ing, corrosion or by the action of leaking 
steam. 



174 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

The first thing to do is to thoroughly 
clean the metal where the edge is to be 
built up. Scrape off all the rust and scale 
on the sheets around where welding is to 
be done and use a chipping hammer on the 
eroded edge. Then make the weld, build- 
ing up the metal somewhat heavier than 
the sheet and when through, take a four- 
ounce hammer and lightly hammer the 
weld until nice and smooth. 




Pig. 62 
A Worn Caulking Edge. 

BUILDING OF CORRODED PLACE NEAR EDGE 
OF SHEET 

In Fig. 63, we show in the shaded por- 
tion, a corroded place near edge of sheet 
at the mud-ring. 

In preparing, clean the corroded place 
and the sheet near same thoroughly of all 
scale, rust, etc., and take out rivets No. 1, 
No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4. Start welding at 
No. 5, working towards the bottom edge. 
Build up slightly higher than sheet and 
use a hammer lightly afterwards. 



Boiler Welding 



175 



WELDING SHEET TO MUD-KING 

Considerable of this class of work is 
being done, bnt it requires an experienced 
and careful welder to do successful work, 
for the reason that the mud-ring is so much 
heavier than the sheet, the inexperienced 
will too frequently fail to get the mud-ring 
in a molten state, with the result that 
proper adhesion is lacking. Use at least a 




Fig. 63 
Corroded Edge of Sheet. 

No.' 8 welding tip and see that the mud- 
ring is brought to fusion before adding 
metal from the filler rod. The edges of 
sheets No. 1 to No. 2 (Fig. 64) which are 
to be welded should be beveled and the 
mud ring must be cleaned of scale and 
rust at and near the weld. Start welding 
sheet No. 1 and when lap at "A" is 
reached, weld up the seam for about six 
inches and then come back and finish the 
beveled edge of sheet No. 2. 



176 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 



WELDING LOCOMOTIVE FLUES 

The sheet should be prepared by counter- 
sinking the flue hole about 3/16" deep and 
extending the flue to within %" of the outer 




"cfQe Beve/e d 



Fig. 64 . 
Welding Sheets to Mud-rini 



surface of the flue sheet. If this is done, 
the flue will extend about 1/16" beyond the 

!L_l__ 

Fig. 65 
Preparation of Flues and Sheet. 

lower edge for the counter-sinking. See 
Fig. 65. Do not use copper ferrules. Ex- 





Boiler Welding 177 

pand the flue just enough to fill up the flue 
hole. Use y 8 " welding wire and No. 5 weld- 
ing tip. 

For the individual weld, start at the bot- 
tom or lower side and make one-half of the 
weld, stopping at the top of the flue. Then 




Fig. 66 
Best Order to Weld Flues. 



begin again at the bottom and make the 
other half of the weld. 

For welding a number of flues, Fig. 66 
shows the order in which they should be 
welded, beginning at No. 1 and continuing 
in numerical order, finally finishing at No. 
26. This distributes the shrinkage strains. 



CHAPTER IX 

WELDING OF VARIOUS PIECES. 

Welding of Automobile Cylinder, Lug on Manifold. Re- 
pairing Scored Cylinder — Welding Arm of Alumi- 
num Crank Case, Crack in Aluminum Oil Pan, 
Ely-Wheel, Large Cylinders, Crank Shaft, Automo- 
bile Frames — Tempering — Finishing a Weld While 
Hot with a File — Clamps for Holding Sheet Metal 
Edges in Alignment — Welding Horse. Welding Dies, 
High Carbon Tool Steel to Low Carbon, Manganese 
Steel. Aluminum Soldering — Use of Oxygen for 
Removing Carbon — Cost Card — Receipt Ticket — 
Description of Welded Castings. 

The welding of an ordinary crack in the 
water jacket of an automobile cylinder is 
not a difficult task if one has a fair knowl- 
edge of welding and carries out to the let- 
ter instructions as to pre-heating. The 
cylinder should always be stripped, and if 
possible educate your customers to bring- 
ing them to the shop in this condition. 
Valves, springs, pet-cocks, etc., should all 
be removed. The cylinder should be care- 
fully examined in a good light to determine 
if possible whether there are any cracks 
other than those which are easily seen. 
Sometimes, when considerable care is exer- 
cised, but frequently through carelessness, 
the operator overlooks a crack and has to 
reweld the cylinder. The cracks should be 
chipped to a 45-degree angle with a dia- 

178 



Welding of Various Pieces 179 

mond point. This not only insures a better 
weld, but when this is done one is very 
much more apt to detect stray cracks. If 
the cylinder is painted, this should be re- 
moved for about an inch on both sides of 
the weld by means of an old file. Some 
graphite should be obtained and mixed with 
kerosene until it is of a thick, pasty consist- 
ency. This should be rubbed on the inside 
of the cylinders and on the valve seats and 
also on the threads of the valve chambers 
by means of a swab, which is simply made 
by tying some rags or waste on the end of 
an iron rod. This may seem unnecessary 
to some, but it certainly will protect those 
parts which are covered with it, and their 
appearance after the welding is finished 
will be better. This will please the cus- 
tomer, and the writer believes you cannot 
be far wrong when you do that. 

The cylinder is now ready for pre-heat- 
ing. Place it with the valve parts down 
and the open end of the cylinder up. Do 
not lay it on its side. Usually there is an 
abundance of old scrap asbestos around a 
welding shop, and some think it advisable 
to fill the cylinder with this. Certainly it 
can do no harm, and it may do good. En- 
close the cylinder on all "sides with fire 
brick ; this makes a temporary furnace. If 
charcoal is used it should be lighted and 
allowed to burn of itself. No forced draft 



180 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

should ever be employed. Remember that 
what is desired is an even heat, and this is 
best obtained by slow heating. If coal gas 
is employed, a torch using atmospheric air 
should be used, and the flame made to 
impinge on the brick — not on the cylinder. 
A piece of sheet iron or asbestos paper is 
laid on top of the brick furnace to keep out 
any drafts. Some use a metal hood, count- 
er-weighted, which will cover the entire 
furnace. Ocasionally the cylinder should 
be examined as to its condition. The de- 
gree to which it should be heated is one of 
the things on which there is a difference of 
opinion. 

Some heat to a point where it is just 
too hot to lay your hand on, others heat 
to a dull red, while there are some who 
raise the temperature still higher. ^ The 
writer's experience would justify his ad- 
vising almost a dull red heat. The cylinder 
should then be turned in a position for 
welding. If charcoal is used it is left in the 
fire ; if coal gas the torch is either turned 
low or extinguished altogether. For turn- 
ing or moving the cylinder, a small chain 
block with an old pair of ice tongs will 
be found very convenient, eliminating in 
many instances the need of a helper. The 
welding should then be done. If it is a 
long crack or several, requiring consider- 
able time, it is best to stop before com- 



Welding of Various Pieces 181 

pletion and reheat by the addition of 
more charcoal or by turning on the gas 
torches. When finished, again turn on 
the gas torches for a while or replen- 
ish the charcoal, cover well and let it cool 
slowly. 

In justice to yourself and your customer, 
always test the cylinder under water pres- 
sure before sending it out. For doing this 
quickly a number of wooden plugs of differ- 
ent sizes should always be kept on hand for 
closing openings for which you will prob- 
ably have no plugs. If you have a water 
system, connect the water line with one 
opening and turn on the pressure. If not, 
fill with water and use a hand pump, rais- 
ing the pressure to 15 or 20 pounds. 

WELDING OF A LUG ON A MANIFOLD 
OE A CYLINDEE 

Anyone familiar with either casting will 
know that their faces are machined and, 
therefore, true. Naturally, it is desirable 
that this alignment be maintained when 
welding on a lug that has been broken 
off. 

If one possesses a face plate or a straight 
edge, the manifold or the cylinder can be 
clamped to it, first placing underneath two 
or three thicknesses of ordinary paper. 
Place the broken lug in position and either 
clamp it down or hold in place with a two- 



182 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

or three-pound weight. Do not use any 
paper under the broken lug. By doing this, 
the lug will be slightly lower than the re- 
mainder of the casting and this will allow 
for the pull or shrinkage in the metal. Tack 
the weld at one side and then start at the 
other side and weld around to where the 
i i tack ' ' was made. The clamps should then 
be removed and the casting turned over 
and the weld touched up from this side. 
After the weld is finished, cover with as- 
bestos and allow to cool. If there should 
be a slight excess of metal on the machined 
side it can easily be filed off*. 

REPAIRING A SCORED CYLINDER 

Frequently a wrist pin works loose, with 
the result that the friction wears a slot 
almost the entire length of the cylinder. 
This means loss of compression, and if the 
score is very deep, very little power will 
be obtained from that cylinder. To repair 
this by welding is not an easy undertak- 
ing. When the welding is completed, of 
course it is necessary to regrind the cyl- 
inder. This is not objectionable, but in 
the majority of cases it is necessary to 
regrind until the cylinder is enlarged, 
which means an oversize piston must be 
used. In addition to this added expense 
there are other objections, so that we would 
advise brazing. The cylinder must be pre- 



Welding of Various Pieces 



183 



heated just as though welding were to be 
employed. Particular care should be used 
in cleaning the score. Tobin or manganese 
bronze can be employed, using a flux. 
Those shops not equipped to do regrinding 
will find this method of repairing an ad- 
vantage. A small portable grinder is used 
to remove the roughness, and it can then 
be finished with scrapers. 

WELDING ARM OF AN ALUMINUM CRANK CASE 




Quite frequently the arm of a case 
breaks. This is comparatively a simple 
weld. There is no necessity to take care 
of expansion and contraction. It is neces- 
sary to take care of alignment, and to this 
end a straight bar should be bolted tight to 
the other arm on the same side of the 
case, the broken arm resting on the bar and 
being clamped to it, care being taken that 
the clamps are not drawn too tight. It will 



184 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

be best to start welding along the top first 
and then weld each side, finishing by weld- 
ing on the inside, where a fillet or reinforce- 
ment can be made. 



WELDING CRACK IN ALUMINUM OIL PAN 




Fig. 68 shows an aluminum pan with 
a crack, AB, lined up and ready to weld. 
Angle irons are bolted to the case. The 
holes in the angle irons should be some- 
what larger than the holes in the case and 
the bolts should not be drawn tight so that 
the case will have an opportunity to ex- 
pand when heated, but will do so along the 
line and in the direction of the angle irons. 
The case should be pre-heated, either with 
charcoal, gas torch or with the welding 
torch. The heating should mainly be on 
the side opposite to the crack AB. The 
degree of heat is not only somewhat diffi- 
cult to determine, but is also one regarding 



Welding of Various Pieces 



185 



which good welders differ. Some prefer 
to heat until the metal begins to sweat. In 
the majority of instances this is not neces- 
sary, besides one is getting dangerously 
near the point where the case will collapse 
and be ruined. Others take some salt or 
sawdust and sprinkle on the case, and if it 
chars or burns quickly, proceed to weld. 
The welding should start at A and proceed 
towards B ; never in the opposite direction. 
Always work a weld out towards the edge. 
When the weld is practically completed, 
the one angle iron on that side should be 
removed and the crack touched up, a 
little more metal being added than neces- 
sary. This excess metal can easily be 
filed off. 



WELDING OF A FLY-WHEEL 

X 




Fig. 69 represents a cast-iron fly-wheel, 
having a break in a spoke at A, and also 



186 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

a break in the rim at B. First, let us. as- 
sume that there is only one break, and it 
is at "A." We should have learned by 
this time that if we attempted to make this 
weld and gave no thought as to expansion 
and contraction, that it would be sure to 
break again when cooling. The proper way 
to take care of expansion and contraction 
is to heat the rim to a dull red on both 
sides of this broken spoke. As the rim is 
heated it expands outwardly, and it 
will be seen that the edges of the break 
have separated. The weld should then 
be made as rapidly as possible and the 
wheel covered up carefully and allowed to 
cool slowly. 

Now let us suppose that we have a 
broken spoke, A, and a broken rim, B. 
This is really more simple than the one 
single break in the spoke at A, if we go at 
it in the proper way. The break at A must 
always be made first. Before beginning 
the weld, two flat iron bars should be 
clamped along the sides of the rim to main- 
tain alignment. The weld at A should be 
started and a heavy "tack" made, then 
turn the wheel over and weld one-half the 
way through, when the wheel should again 
be turned, the "tack" melted out and the 
weld completed. Upon examing the crack 
in the rim at B, in all probability it will 
be seen that the part of the rim, XB, ex- 



Welding of Various Pieces 187 

tends a little farther out than does 
BY. 

This, of course, is due to the fact that 
the spoke has expanded from the heat of 
welding, so we should carefully heat the 
rim at Y until it expands and the two edges 
of the crack at B are even and true. Then 
make the weld, cover the casting and cool 
slowly. 



WELDING OF LAEGE CYLINDEKS 

In the pre-heating of large cylinders 
usually better results can be obtained by 
changing somewhat the method used on 
ordinary automobile cylinders. The inner 
wall of large stationary gas engine cylin- 
ders is usually considerably heavier than 
the outer or water jacket wall. The cylin- 
der should be well swabbed with graph- 
ite and then stood upright, the lower 
end resting on bricks, leaving an air 
space of about 3 or 4 inches at the 
bottom. Some charcoal is then placed 
inside the cylinder and allowed to heat 
until the outer wall is fairly hot. It then 
should be turned over on its side and 
heated all over. 

If gas torches are used, this is not neces- 
sary, as a small one can be placed so as 
to play on the inside, but not against the 
walls of the cylinder. 



188 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

WELDING A CKANK SHAFT 

The welding of a crank shaft should not 
be attempted until one has had at least a 
year's experience in welding. Automobile 
shafts are steel with a fairly high carbon 




content, and, in addition, frequently con- 
tain nickel, chrome, etc. Good welders can 
do this class of work successfully the fair 
or mediocre operator would do) well to 
"pass them up." 



Welding of Various Pieces 189 

Eegardless as to the quality of the weld, 
it will be necessary to put the shaft in a 
lathe and do some straightening, after the 
weld is completed. 

Now the amount of work required in 
straightening can be considerable or very 
little, depending upon the care exercised 
in lining up the shaft before welding, and 
the means for holding it approximately in 
that position. Some advocate the use of 
J'V" blocks for this purpose. Besides be- 
ing quite expensive, they are of very little 
value, and a straight piece of heavy angle 
iron will answer as well. 

A simple and inexpensive means for 
holding shaft is shown in Fig. 70. It is 
copied very much after the steady rest on 
a lathe. The shaft is lined up by means of 
set screws and a straight edge and a sur- 
face gauge are used to determine when it 
is correct. The shaft is then tacked and 
again tried to see if it is true and the set 
screws are tightened so that the shaft 
can be easily turned. The weld is then 
made. 

When finished and while hot, it is again 
tested, and if "off" it is an easy matter 
to straighten by tightening up one set 
screw while loosening the opposite one. 

A great many shafts have been welded 
on a device of this kind and very little ma- 
chining was necessary afterwards. 



190 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

WELDING OF AUTOMOBILE FRAMES 

Broken automobile frames are now a 
commonplace job for the average welding 
shop. A good many welders simply jack 
up the frame, secure alignment and pro- 
ceed to weld. The flanges of the channel 
are usually welded first, the welds being 
made from the topside, the molten metal 
going through and forming " tits' ' on the 
under side. The under side is then made 
smooth with the torch it being necessary to 
add very little if any metal. The side of 
the channel is then welded. As this is a 
vertical weld somewhat more skill is re- 
quired. The crack is chamfered by simply 
melting out the crack with the torch. A 
somewhat smaller flame is desirable for 
making this weld and this is usually ac- 
complished by slightly closing the torch 
cocks thereby cutting down the size of the 
flame. Begin at the bottom, run the two 
edges together and then make a shelf by 
adding metal and gradually build this 
shelf up. 

Some welders reinforce the weld by plac- 
ing a plate about 3/16" thick and 6" or 8" 
long on the inside of the channel and weld- 
ing both ends to the frame. If the welder 
is not absolutely sure of himself, it is bet- 
ter for him to play safe and do this and as 
usually the plate can be placed on the in- 



Welding of Various Pieces 191 

side of the channel it is not unsightly. 
Another way often made use of not only 
with auto frames but for similar welds on 
channels is to first make the flange welds. 
Then take the cutting torch and for a dis- 
tance of about one inch on each side of the 
crack top and bottom, cut the frame. These 
cuts are shown in Fig. 71 as AX and CX 
for one side and BX and DX for the other 
side. Then with the welding torch heat 




the side AXCX from A to C and with a 
hammer drive the metal in. Treat the 
other side the same way. The channel 
portion at the crack is now quite depressed 
and forms an exaggerated "V." Weld 
this up until flush. When properly done 
it is very strong and can be finished 
off so as to not show th#t it has ever been 
welded. 

WELDING OF PARTITIONS IN OIL TANK 
WAGONS 

Most of the oil concerns who deliver 
oil in tank wagons, when ordering new 



192 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 



tanks are specifying that they shall be 
welded throughout. These tanks carry 
gasoline, kerosene and other grades of oil, 
so that this calls for several compartments, 
necessitating partitions. As a leak in a 
partition might result seriously, they usu- 
ally specify that there must be provided 
two partitions, instead of one. These par- 
titions are made from flat stock and are 



ML 



A 



m ■ 

Fig. 72 
Oil Tank Partitions. 

dished very much^like a pie pan. This is 
practically all that is necessary, to take 
care of expansion and contraction. The 
edges at the ends of two tanks are flanged, 
the two dished partitions are set in posi- 
tion (see Fig. 72), and the four edges are 
tacked at four or five points. The four 
edges are then welded all the way around. 



Welding of Various Pieces 



193 



WELDING HORSE 



Figure 73 shows a welding horse, with 
aluminum case in position being welded. 
This horse is so simple to make and yet is 
so great a convenience in a custom repair 




Fig. 73 
Welding Horse for Holding Aluminum Cases. 

shop, that a description of it and its uses 
would seem advisable. 

In the majority of shops the custom has 
been for the welder to use a helper when 
working on aluminum cases, especially if 



194 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

they were of rather large size. The 
duties of the helper were to turn the casting 
from time to time, keeping the portion that 
was actually being welded in a horizontal 
position. Sometimes the helper was dis- 
pensed with and the welder did his own 
turning, supporting the casting, from time 
to time, by means of brick or other de- 
vices. At times this places a considerable 
strain on the casting, causing it in some 
instances to crack elsewhere than in the 
weld. Often the supporting bricks, hav- 
ing been placed hurriedly in position, 
would slip and allow the case to drop, with 
more or less resulting damage. This weld- 
ing horse eliminates all of this. The case 
is simply bolted to the frame of the horse. 
The frame and the attached case can re- 
volve on the supporting shaft by loosening 
a set screw and can be instantly fixed in 
any desired position by simply tightening 
the set screw. This horse is made as 
follows : 

The legs are made of ordinary standard 
%" pipe and are cut about 32 inches long. 
A piece of l^-inch pipe about six inches 
long is butted against two legs and welded. 
The legs should be positioned to incline in- 
ward somewhat. On the top of the short 
1 14-inch pipe build up a lug about %-inch 
high. Then drill about a %-inch or i/o-inch 
hole and tap. This is to receive a set 



Welding of Various Pieces 195 

screw. Then get two straight pieces of 
angle iron abont 4 or 5 feet long. This 
angle iron should be about 2"x2"x}4". At 
each end cut out a small square from one 
flange about 2"x2". 

This cut should be made on the same 
flange for both pieces of angle iron. Weld 
on the under side of the uncut portion a 
piece of bar stock formed in a "U" shape. 
This will form a slot through which 
passes a flat bar forming the end. 
On the side of the "U" shaped piece 
build up a lug, drill and tap for a set 
screw. 

For the ends, get two pieces of flat stock 
about l%"x%"j and each 2 feet long. 
In the center of each and at right angle 
weld a piece of 1" pipe about 8" long. These 
two pieces of pipe will form the shaft for 
the welding horse and the bearings will be 
the two pieces of 1%" pipe welded onto the 
legs. The two pieces of angle iron which 
form the sides can be moved in or out on 
the two flat bars forming the ends, and 
thereby adjusted to the width of the case. 
Ordinary clamps are used to fasten the 
case to the angle irons. 

WELDIXG OF DIES 

Dies are, of course, made from high car- 
bon steel. As we have previously stated, 



196 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

high carbon steels are difficult to weld; 
however, very satisfactory welding is done 
on this class of work. Ordinary Norway 
iron can be used as a filler, but it must be 
remembered that it will be impossible to 
temper the metal in the weld on account 
of its low carbon content. Some concerns, 
notably shoe factories, use a great many, 
small cutting dies. They are very thin, 
and the breakage is considerable. In weld- 
ing, Norway was used, but it was exceed- 
ingly difficult to prevent blow-holes from 
forming near and at the thin cutting edge. 
By experimenting, a high carbon filler rod 
was found which eliminated this trouble 
and also gave a harder cutting edge. 
Those interested sufficiently to write to the 
author will be gladly given the name of this 
steel. 

WELDING OF HIGH CARBON TOOL STEEL 
TO LOW CARBON 

The exceedingly high price of high car- 
bon steel during the past year has caused 
many concerns to interest themselves in 
some method that would show an economy 
in the use of this material, with the result 
that a great many are now using for their 
cutting tools a small piece of high carbon 
to which has been welded a longer piece of 
low carbon. The same thing is done with 
high speed and tool steel. Very little, if 



Welding of Various Pieces 197 

any, bevel is made on the high carbon piece, 
whereas a very long bevel is made on the 
low carbon bar. The secret as to success- 
ful welding on this class of work is in pre- 
heating both pieces until they are a cherry 
red all over and then welding fast, using 
as a filler either Vanadium or nickel steel, 
although Norway can be used. 

WELDING OF MANGANESE STEEL 

The welding of manganese steel is not a 
success. While the metal can be run to- 
gether, the weld will be found to be porous, 
brittle, and, of course, possessing little 
strength. It is extremely doubtful if it 
ever will be welded successfully with the 
flame. The government specifications for 
this steel call for a manganese content of 
not less than 11% nor more than 13%. 
Manganese has a great affinity for oxygen, 
with the result that when the steel is melted 
a considerable amount of the manganese 
burns out, leaving less than 11% behind. 
Attempts to put manganese back into the 
casting by using a filler rod high in man- 
ganese have not proven a success, as it 
would be luck if only enough were added to 
come within the narrow range of from 11% 
to 13%. Manganese steel is used for 
switch frogs, safes, ore crushing rolls, 
dredge dippers, etc. 



198 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

THE USE OF ALUMINUM SOLDER 

Those doing custom welding should be 
capable of soldering aluminum. It is not 
difficult, and there are occasions when its 
use is desirable. It must be remembered 
that a soldered joint will not have the 
strength of a weld, claims of some manu- 
facturers of aluminum solder to the con- 
trary notwithstanding. For that reason 
soldering should not be resorted to where 
it is necessary to secure in the joint 
strength equal to other parts of the cast- 
ing. A small crack in the bottom of an 
aluminum oil pan is an instance in which 
soldering can be successfully done. Here 
there is no strain and little strength re- 
quired. The important consideration is 
that it shall be oil tight. 

The crack is beveled out to an angle of 
at least 90 degrees. It is of the utmost 
importance that it shall be clean and 
bright. A tip of small size should be used 
in the welding torch and only the brush 
flame or envelope brought in contact with 
the metal. While the crack is being heated 
a wire hand brush should be used vigor- 
ously until the sides are as bright as a 
new silver dollar. Any good aluminum 
solder can be used. There are quite a 
number on the market. As soon as the 
crack is clean and fairly warm, rub the 



Welding of Various Pieces 199 

end of the solder in the crack and on the 
side and a small amount will adhere. The 
wire brush must be then used again, rub- 
bing the solder in until every crack, crevice 
and part of the beveled sides are coated 
with the solder. While this is being done 
the torch is being played over the crack and 
by this time the casting should be hot 
enough to melt the solder when it is rubbed 
against the crack. Melt enough to fill up 
the crack and extend over the sides a little 
and use an old hickory hammer handle that 
has been flattened on one side to press the 
solder into shape. When this has been 
done, be careful not to move the casting 
until it has cooled sufficiently to allow the 
solder to set. 

There are a number of aluminum solders 
on the market and some very good ones. 
They do not differ much as to composi- 
tion. For the average person it would be 
cheaper and probably better if they pur- 
chased some standard brand, but occasion- 
ally a welder might be caught without any 
and he might prefer to make some up 
rather than subject his customer to any 
delay. For that reason we give below the 
composition and directions for making two 
aluminum solders which we have used for 
years and found good. 

One we call a hard solder and the 
other a soft solder, the hard solder 



200 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

requiring more heat to melt and giving 
more strength. 

ALUMINUM SOLDER 

Hard Soft 

Aluminum 15% 10% 

Zinc 12% 10% 

Silver 1% 1% 

Copper . 1% 1% 

Tin 71% 78% 



DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING 

Melt the copper in a score fire with borax 
glass and then add the silver. Then add 
10% of the tin and then cool down. This 
is what might be termed the matrix. In 
a large crucible melt the aluminum and 
then add the matrix and then one-half of 
the remaining tin. Add this slowly. Then 
add the zinc slowly and when this is done 
add the balance of the tin. Use a little 
salt as a flux from time to time and do not 
let the solder get below a red heat while 
making. 

REPAIRING SCORED CYLINDERS 

The wrist pin of a piston will often come 
loose, wearing a slot or score in the wall 
of the cylinder, so that good compression 
is impossible. These scores can be welded, 
but this necessitates reboring and usually 
over-sized pistons. Naturally, some method 
of repairing these scores would be desir- 



Welding of Various Pieces 201 

able if reboring and the purchase of over- 
sized pistons could be eliminated. There 
are several ways of doing this, each usually 
quite satisfactory. The first method that 
we will discuss is the soft solder process. 
A gentleman by the name of Lawrence was 
issued a patent on the use of block tin or 
an alloy of block tin and nickel and regard- 
less, as to the validity of the patent, we 
would say that to use this process would 
place the user thereof in the position where 
he might have to defend a suit for infringe- 
ment. However, there are other methods 
which have been used extensively and have 
been found to be quite satisfactory. The 
first and easiest method is the use of or- 
dinary half and half solder. It is not satis- 
factory on air-cooled cylinders but has 
been used for some twelve years or more 
bv the author on water-cooled cylinders 
with good results. This method is as fol- 
lows: 

Take an old file and with it scrape the 
scored portion, cleaning it thoroughly. 
Then pour over the part to be soldered, 
muriatic acid. Then take water and clean 
out good with waste so that no trace of 
acid remains. Warm up the cylinder either 
with the welding torch or blow torch until 
you can barely keep hands on the cylinder, 
then you should apply a flux or soldering 
fluid. This soldering fluid should be one 



202 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

that will work satisfactorily on cast iron. 
If you are unable to obtain a satisfactory 
flux, the author upon request, will advise 
where some can be obtained. Heat the 
soldering iron hot and apply half and half 
solder to the scored part. Fill the scored 
places and build up a little higher than the 
surface of the cylinder. Take an old Ford 
spring or flat file and heat it hot and bend 
it hoe shape, making the edge curved and 
sharp. This makes a good scraper and 
with it the excess solder is scraped down 
level and even with the cylinder. Then rub 
some oil over the repaired place. This 
darkens the solder so that it resembles 
cast iron. 

Another method is to braze with copper. 
This is satisfactory on any kind of a cylin- 
der whether air- or water-cooled. The 
score must be thoroughly cleaned as when 
using ordinary solder and the cylinder pre- 
heated but not to the extent required for 
welding. Some electric copper wire with 
the insulation thoroughly cleaned off will 
serve as a filler. A flux is desirable for 
this work and one that works well is simply 
resin dissolved in either wood or denatured 
alcohol. Paint the score with the liquid 
flux using a small brush. Dip the copper 
filler' wire into the flux and heat the score 
to about a red heat. Then melt the copper 
into the score. The excess copper can then 



Welding of Various Pieces 203 

be filed and scraped out to fit the piston. 
The filing and scraping of -the copper is 
slower than when solder is used but this 
method has the advantage of withstand- 
ing greater heat. 

TEMPERING 

While undoubtedly there are a great 
many welders who know how and can do 
tempering, there must be a great many who 
can not do this. Some are unable to de- 
termine heat by color, with the result that 
one piece will be too hard while another 
will be too soft. The author is one of these. 
A few years ago a friend had him try 
a new wrinkle and such good results fol- 
lowed that we are passing along the in- 
formation. 

Heat the piece to be tempered red hot 
and plunge in oil or water — if spring steel 
use oil. Then in a ladle melt granulated 
saltpeter sufficient to cover the piece as 
high as temper is desired. 

Heat and plunge into this molten bath 
and let it remain until the scale formed 
by the saltpeter has melted. Then re- 
move. 

This comes in very handy for tempering 
chisels which every welder has occasion 
to use. 



204 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

FINISHING A WELD WHILE HOT 
WITH A FILE 

Some welders have developed the fol- 
lowing method for finishing a weld roughly 
so that little machine work is afterwards 
necessary. When the weld is finished, the 
torch is used to heat up the top part so that 
it is about red hot and then a rather 
coarse file is used just as though the metal 
was cold. The high spots are taken off 
very easily, if the metal is not too hot, so 
that some care must be exercised in this re- 
spect, otherwise holes and pockets will be 
gouged out. A very smooth and neat ap- 
pearance can be given to the weld by this 
method. 

CLAMPS FOR HOLDING SHEET METAL 
EDGES IN ALIGNMENT 

An easily made and very helpful clamp 
for holding even the edges of sheet metal 
either flat or curved, is shown in Fig. 74. 
The clamp is made as follows : Take two 
pieces "A" and "B" of %" iron about 3" 
wide and four or five inches long. In the 
center of each drill and file a slot either 
3/16" or 14" wide and about 2" long. Now 
take a third piece "C" of iron either 3/16" 
or y±" thick, slightly smaller in width than 
the slots cut in "A" and "B" and about 3" 
long. In this piece cut a slot about %" or 
3/ 8 " wide and iy 2 " long. 



Welding of Various Pieces 205 




Fig. 74 



206 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

Pass "C" through the slot in "A" and 
let it project about 14" on the under side 
and then weld together, making a good 
strong weld, so it will appear as "E." 
This piece is now placed on the under side 
of the seam with the part "C" between 
the edges. The plate "B " is placed on top 
so that "C" passes through the slot in 
"B." The wedge "D" is driven in until 
the edges of the sheets are perfectly even. 
For long welds several of these clamps 
should be used. As the welding progresses 
and gets close to a clamp it is either 
driven forward or taken out altogether, 
the remaining clamps holding the edges 
true. 



USE OF OXYGEN FOR REMOVING CARBON 

The use of oxygen for the removal of 
carbon in cylinders is now very generally 
employed. The process is one of simple 
combustion, the carbon burning to a gas 
in the presence of pure oxygen. This burn- 
ing is usually attended by a considerable 
pyrotechnic effect, so that the onlooker is 
apt to think that an exceedingly high tem- 
perature is obtained which might injure 
the cylinder. Such is not the case. The 
temperature is somewhat below that pre- 
vailing in the combustion chamber when 



Welding of Various Pieces 



207 




Fig. 75 



This illustration shows a large casting on an ice machine that was 
welded. A part of the flange was broken off and the crack ex- 
tended up into the body of the casting. It was necessary to dis- 
mantle, but presented no serious difficulty in welding, aside from 
the fact that the turning of a casting of its size in order to get at 
every part of the crack was somewhat tedious. The entire end of 
the casting was pre- heated. 



208 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

the engine is running so that no trouble 
can come from that score. An analysis of 
the carbon in cylinders discloses that it 
contains road dust or silica. The oxygen 
will not remove this. 




Fig. 76 

This illustration shows a large copper still with longitudinal seams 
and connections welded. This still was 4^ feet in diameter by 
about 6 feet high. The metal did not exceed 3/16 of an inch in 
thickness, and yet on account of the conductivity of the copper 
it was found necessary to build a coke fire on the inside and 
cover the outside with asbestos in order to hold the heat. 

• To those not familiar with the process 
it is necessary to impress upon them that 
oxygen only is used. Acetylene plavs no 
part and is not used, the carbon in the 
cylinder acting as the only fuel. The equip- 



Welding of Various Pieces 



209 



ment necessary is a tank of oxygen, a regu- 
lator which reduces the pressure, about 12 
feet of hose and either a special carbon 
torch or a special tip which is attached to 




Fig. 77 



This illustration shows an armature with shaft beveled and lined 
up preparatory to welding. In this case the weld was far enough 
removed from* the armature as to not endanger burning the in- 
sulation. Where the weld is closer to the armature it is necessary 
to cover that end with wet asbestos. As the weld progresses, an 
assistant can from time to time slowly pour water on the asbestos. 



the welding torch. The operation is pre- 
pared for as follows: 

The gasoline tank is cut off and the 
motor started and allowed to run until it 
stops of its own accord. This indicates that 
all of the gasoline in the carburetor has 
been used up, which is one of the things 
desired. It is important that no gasoline 



210 Occy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

be allowed to remain in the line from the 
tank ta the carburetor, and if there is a 
vacuum feed, it should be drained. Re- 
move either the valve caps or the spark 




Fig. 78 

This is a large cast-iron cylinder 14 feet in diameter and 
weighing 30,000 pounds. A part of the flange was broken off 
and in addition there were a great many blow-holes in the un- 
broken part. 

On account of the size, and the fact that the welding was on 
an edge, no attempt was made to pre-heat. The broken parts 
were welded back and the blowholes filled up. ft was impossible 
to prevent chilling of the metal and in facing off, an emery wheel 
was found necessary. 

The welded casting has now been in service several years, 
giving entire satisfaction. 



plug on the first cylinder and turn the en- 
gine over until this cylinder is on compres- 
sion. This means that the piston is at 



Welding of Various Pieces 



211 



the top of its stroke and the valves closed. 
The oxygen tank should then be opened 
slowly and the regulator set at about 15 
pounds. Drop a lighted match into the 
valve chamber, insert the copper tubing 
and turn on the oxygen. If the flame is 




Fig. 79 



This shows the head of a large ammonia compressor which 
was badly broken and successfully welded. Not only was it 
necessary to stand high pressure, but it must also be ammonia 
tight and any one familiar with the penetrating quality of that 
gas realizes that the weld, had to be free from blow-holes. The 
metal was about '6 inches thick and the length of the break 36 
inches. 

Fortunately, with the exception of about 6 inches, the welding 
was all in one position. The crack was carefully chamfered and 
lined up and then pre-heated until red all over. 



212 Occy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

considerable, reduce the amount of oxygen 
pressure. 

If the carbon does not seem to burn well 
and increasing the oxygen pressure does 
not help, inject just a few drops of oil, 
kerosene or lubricating. 

Compressed air or a small hand bellows 
should be used to blow out particles of 
road dust or grit that remains, and the 
valve seats should be cleaned with a swab. 




Fig. 80 



This shows a large fly-wheel which had all six spokes broken, 
and which was successfully welded. 

In this case the entire wheel, rim, hub and spokes were pre- 
heated and all but a very little welding was done from one side. 
In this case it was impossible to keep the bore in the hub true, 
so the bore was enlarged and a bushing inserted. 



Welding of Various Pieces 213 

The remaining cylinders are treated in 
like manner. 

It is good policy to have near at hand 
a fire extinguished, as the proximity of 
grease and oils to the flying sparks must 
be considered. 

COST-CARD 

Some kind of a time or cost-card should 
be kept where job or repair welding is 
done. By doing so you will not only have a 
record of the operation in the event of a 
dispute, but in a very few months you will 
have on file a history of a great many dif- 
ferent jobs, which will be found of great 
assistance in determining a price should 
the customer desire it. Few custom weld- 
ing shops properly take into account what 
is known as overhead expense. This in- 
cludes rent, telephones, advertising, post- 
age, bad accounts, depreciation of equip- 
ment, failure of welds, etc. At least 100% 
should be added to the actual labor, gas 
and material cost to cover the over- 
head. Unless this is done one will not go 
ahead. 

If the owner of the shop does his own 
welding, he should charge this up at the 
same price he would have to pay did he 
employ a welder. 

A cost-card for repair welding is shown 
on page 216. 



214 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 




Fig. 81 



This is an illustration taken of a compartment oil tank used on a 
delivery wagon. The manner in which the partitions are formed 
and welded^ in is described elsewhere, as is also the welding of 
the filling and drainage plugs. The manufacture of these tanks 
presents no serious difficulties. 



Electric Welding 



215 



Fig. 82 



This shows part 
of the frame of a 
large Hoe print- 
ing press. This 
"was broken at the 
white line near 
the man's hand. 
The metal was 
4 x 5 in. A pre- 
heating torch was 
directed on the 
break but in such 
a position that 
the main casting 
instead of the 
broken-off part re- 
ceived most of the 
heat. The weld- 
ing was completed 
in only a few 
hours enabling 
the customer to 
print his paper 
without the loss 
of a single issue. 




216 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 
COST-CARD 



Date — June 1st 


, 1916 






Shop Ticket Js 


fo. 50 


Article — Single 


Cylinder 




Kind of Weld- 


5-inch crack in water 


■ jacket 






Pressure — Oxy. 


Start 


1750 


lbs. 


in 100 cu. 


ft. 


tank 


Pressure — Oxy. 


Finish 


1400 


lbs. 












350 


lbs. 









GAS USED 

Cu. Ft. Oxygen Used 20 @ 2c $ .40 

Cu. Ft. Acetylene Used 20 @ 3c .60 

LABOR 

Preparing— Hrs. Min. 30 @ $ .80 .40 

Welding —Hrs. Min. 30 @ 1.00 .50 

Finishing— Hrs. 1 Min. @ .80 .80 

MATERIAL 
Rods 

—Lbs. Steel @ 

1 —Lbs. Cast Iron @ .15 . .15 

— Lbs. Bronze @ 



Flux . 


— Lbs. Aluminum @ 


05 




— Lbs. Charcoal 

Pre-Heating Torch y 2 Hour 

TOTAL. . . 


.10 




$3.00 









EECEIPT TICKET 

Whether the broken casting is brought to 
the welding shop by a firm rising their own 
dray ticket or by an individual, the welding 
shop's own receipt ticket should be given. 
It is important that this receipt ticket have 
printed at the top the conditions under 
which the casting is accepted. A sample 
ticket is shown herewith. 

We guarantee our ordinary class of work, by re- 
funding the amount paid for the work, if it should break 
again in the line of the weld within 30 days from date 



Welding of Various Pieces 217 

of delivery to owners, or we will reweld again free of 
charge, parts to be submitted to us, transportation pre- 
paid for our decision. If we cannot succeed in making 
a satisfactory job, we do not make any charge for the 
work; our responsibility ends here. 

We are not responsible for the parts left in our charge 
after 30 days. 

We accept parts only as being of scrap value, and are 
not responsible for delays of any kind. 

All work is received subject to above conditions and 
guarantee. 



No. 250 

John Jones Welding Co. 

Order No. 52 
St. Louis, January 10, 1916 
Received from Smith Auto Company 

2826 Locust Street 
1 Aluminum Case 
To be done 1/12/16 Price $15.00 

Taken out by Sam Johnson 

Date 1/12/16 

These tickets should be made in dupli- 
cate, one being given and one retained by 
the welding shop, and upon this latter one 
the customer 's receipt is obtained when the 
casting goes out. 



CHAPTER X 



WELDING SYMBOLS 



During the War, Naval Constructor 
Knox, of the U. S. Navy Yard, Norfolk, 
Va., realized the necessity of symbols to 
designate the various sorts of welds em- 
ployed. He in conjunction with several 
committees worked out a very complete 
system of nomenclature and symbols which 
are applicable to the general use of the 
industry. It would seem desirable that the 
welder should have a working knowledge 
of at least the most commonly used symbols 
and what they represent. 



No. i 



Weld,:, 



TYPE OF JOINT 

STRAP. Symbol- Q 



We/d --,-'■> 





Fig. 83 

Strap Weld is one in which the seam of two adjoining plates 
or surfaces is reinforced by any form or shape to add strength 
and stability to the joint or plate. In this form of weld the seam 
is welded only from one side — that opposite the reinforcement — 
and the reinforcement, of course, is welded to the side of the 
work to which it is applied. 
218 



Welding Symbols 



219 



No. 2. 



BUTT 



Symbol-. (J 




Weld 



Fig. 84 




Butt Weld is one in which two pieces are brought together edge 
to edge and welded along the seam thus formed. 



Ho. 3. 



LAP. 



SYMBOL: /\ 




- Weld '' 

Fig. 85 

Lap "Weld is one in which the edges of two plates are set one 

above the other, the edge of one plate being welded to the face 

of the other. 



No. 4-. 



FILLET. 




— Weld 



Symbol-\J 




-Weld 



Fig. 86 

A Fillet "Weld is one in which a piece or member is welded to the 

face of a plate or pipe by welding along the vertical edge of the 

piece or member. 



220 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 



lio.S. 



PLUG. 



Symbol :f~*\ 




Weld 



/ 




7 








f 






\CD^ 




p 







Fig. 87 



A Plug Weld is used to join two pieces by welding through a 
hole in one to the face of the other. Sometimes both pieces have 
a hole, the top hole being larger and countersunk so as to per- 
mit of the flame reaching the lower hole more easily. 



No. 6. 




TEE. 



.— Weld 



Symbol .- \7 




Weld- 



> 



Fig. 88 

An example of a Tee Weld is where one plate is welded vertically 
to another plate or to a pipe. 



Welding Symbols 



221 



DESIGN" OF WELD 

Design of weld refers more particularly to the preparation the 

pieces undergo prior to welding. Of course the manner in 

which the pieces are prepared determines, for the most part, 

the way the welding is expected to be done. 



No. I. 



SINGLE "V." Symbol^ 




Fig. 89 

The term Single "V" is applied when only one of the pieces 

to be welded is beveled and the bevel is made from both sides. 

This implies that the welding is done from both sides. 



Ho. 2. 



DOUBLE V 



Symbol X^ 




Pig. 90 

The term Double "V" is applied when the adjoining edges of 

both of the pieces to be welded are beveled from both sides and 

are then "butted" together, thereby forming a trough top and 

bottom. Welding is done from both sides. 



222 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 
No. 3. STRAIGHT. Symbol^ 




Fig. 91 

Straight is the term applied to the "edge finish" when this edge 

is not prepared or beveled at all. The two pieces are simply 

spaced, and used either with or without a stiffener. 



No. 4-. 



SINGLE BEVEL. 



Symbol:—^ 




Fig. 92 

The term Single Bevel is applied when only one plate or piece 

is beveled and that piece only from one side. All welding is 

done from one side. 



No. 5. DOUBLE BEVEL 



Symbol-- < — > 




Fig. 93 

Double Bevel is the term applied to the "edge finish" of two 
adjoining pieces when the edges to be welded of both pieces are 
beveled from one side only. This preparation forms a trough on 
one side only and it follows that the welding is done from one 
side only. 



Welding Symbols 



223 



POSITION OF WELD 




Fig. 94 



The above drawing shows the four positions of welding which 
the location of the welds at times makes it necessary to assume. 

The Flat Position is the most common and is employed when 
the welding material is applied to a seam or surface on the same 
plane as the floor or ground. 

The Horizontal Position is employed in making a weld when 
the seam is parallel with the floor or ground. 

The Vertical Position is encountered when vertical or approx- 
imately perpendicular to the plane of the floor. 

The Overhead Position is necessary when welding is done on 
the underside of a sheet or member. It is the antithesis of the 
flat position. 



224 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 



No. K 



KIND OF WELD 

TACK. Symbol: fa 




Fig. 95 

A Tack Weld is one where the weld is made in small sections. 
This kind of welding is not continuous. Frequently the space 
from center to center of the weld is specified as is also the length 
of the tack or weld itself. This term is also used for temporarily 
holding material in position preparatory to be solidly wettied. 



No. 2. 



CAULK/NG. 



Symbol •• f 




Fig. 96 

A Caulking Weld is used only when strength is of little im- 
portance. Its sole object is to insure a tight join against leak- 
age of water, oil or air pressure of 25 pounds per square inch. 



Welding Symbols 

TYPE OF WELD 

NQ.t. t 'REINFORCED. Symbol^ 



225 




Pig. 97 

Reinforced is a term applied to a weld when welding material 

has been added sufficient to build up the welded portion until it 

is higher than the original sheet or section. This type of weld 

is employed when maximum strength is desired. 



No. 2 



FLUSH 



Symbol 




Fig. 98 

Flush is a term applied to a weld when welding material has 

been added sufficient to make the weld the same height or oi 

equal thickness as the original sheet. 



tio.Z 



CONCAVE 



Symbol \J 




Concave is a term applied to a weld when the welding material 
added is not sufficient to make the welded portion equal in thick- 
ness to that of the sheet or section. The line of the weld, there- 
fore forms a trough. This type of weld is to be used when 
strength is of little importance. 



CHAPTER XI 

ELECTRIC WELDING. 

Spot, Butt and Arc Welding — Direct and Alternating 
Current Machines — Kinds of Electrodes — Specifica- 
tions for Electrode Wire — Protection for the Opera- 
tor — Information Required of Prospective User — 
Length of Arc-Preparation of Metal for Welding — 
Expansion and Contraction — Instructions for Be- 
ginners — Tables and Useful Information. 

Electric welding was used prior to the 
introduction of the oxy-acetylene torch. 
The advocates of gas welding claim that 
electric welding had remained practically 
dormant for several years and that the in- 
troduction and development of gas weld- 
ing brought to the attention of electrical 
engineers the possibilities of electric weld- 
ing and gave it an impetus which it would 
not have had by itself. Regardless as to 
that fact, electric welding has become rec- 
ognized as a successful way of uniting two 
pieces of metal and it would seem to the 
author fitting that something should be 
said relative to the art. There are three 
kinds of electric welding, spot, butt and 
arc. 

RESISTANCE WELDING 

Spot and butt welding are grouped to- 
gether under what is known as resistance 
welding, while arc welding is a process 
unto itself. 

226 



Electric Welding 227 

Resistance welding has for its basis the 
well known principle that electricity flow- 
ing through a poor conductor meets with 
resistance and heats the conductor. ^ The 
degree of heat depends upon two things: 
the volume of current and the resistance 
of the conductor. 

In operation, a good conductor, usually 
of copper, carries the current to the work. 
The work itself, mainly iron or steel pieces, 
completes the electric circuit, and as the 
iron or steel is a poor conductor as com- 
pared with the copper, the current in pass- 
ing through heats the iron or steel to a 
degree where union can be obtained by 
compression. In resistance welding the in- 
terior of the metal is raised to a welding 
temperature before the surface reaches 
that heat, so the claim is made that if the 
exterior surface is welded, the interior is 
also sure to be welded. In the main, this 
is correct, but it should be borne in mind 
that with a careless or incompetent oper- 
ator, it can happen that the exterior is 
heated almost to the melting point. The 
interior is at a still higher temperature — 
possibly melting — in which event gases are 
formed which explode or "blow," forcing 
out in a liquid state a portion of the inte- 
rior, with the result that a hole or pocket 
is formed in the interior while the exterior 



228 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

might present the appearance of a perfect 
weld. 

SPOT WELDING 

Spot welding is used largely on thin 
sheet metal, although recently some very 
satisfactory work has been done on sheets 
% of an inch in thickness. In spot welding, 
a welded spot serves the purpose formerly 
done by a rivet, and is applied to work 
which does not require a continuous joint. 
The two sheets of metal to be joined are 
lapped just the same as if they were to be 
riveted. The sheets are then brought be- 
tween two electrodes, a suitable alternat- 
ing current turned on and in its passage 
from one electrode through the two sheets 
to the other electrode, it meets with re- 
sistance in the sheets and heats up a small 
spot in the sheet. When the sheet becomes 
hot, pressure is brought to bear and the 
metal is united in a spot, hence the name. 

BUTT WELDING 

This method is used to weld rods, bars, 
etc., transverse to the length of the pieces. 
It consists in butting two pieces of metal 
closely together and passing a suitable al- 
ternating electric current through them. 
At the point where the two pieces are in 
contact, the resistance will, usually in a 
fraction of a minute, heat the metal up to 
a point where by simply exerting pressure 



Electric Welding 229 

the two pieces can be squeezed together, 
producing a union. The pressure and cur- 
rent are usually maintained until the metal 
is upset, forming a burr round the weld, 
thereby forcing out any oxide that may 
have formed. This is of necessity a quan- 
tity proposition and is interesting only to 
the manufacturer. 

ARC WELDING 

Of the three kinds of electric welding, 
arc welding is the only one that is ap- 
plicable to the repair of broken or defec- 
tive castings. It is also used for manu- 
facturing purposes. In arc welding, direct 
current was used almost exclusively prior 
to the war, the general impression being 
that alternating current was not suitable. 
Those that tried to use alternating current 
evidently either did not have a properly de- 
signed machine or did not continue their 
experiments long enough for the operators 
to become proficient. However, at the 
present time there are alternating current 
transformers on the market with which as 
good welding can be accomplished as with 
any direct current machine, although it 
must be admitted that it is more difficult to 
hold the arc with the A. C. machine than 
with the D. C. While the author would 
warn against placing too much stock in 
test pieces, it is but fair to state that some 



230 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

samples have been welded with A. C, which 
when tested showed up better than those 
made with D. C. At any rate, it is possible 
to get D. C. or A. C. machines to suit one's 
fancy or current with which good welding 
can be accomplished. 

DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES 

There are today three fundamental 
types of direct current machines — constant 
potential, with fixed resistance ; variable 
potential and constant current. These ma- 
chines usually comprise a motor generator 
set. Naturally, the motor can be dispensed 
with and power to drive the generator 
taken from line shaft, gasoline engine, etc. 

A single operator equipment weighs at 
least a ton, but when mounted on a truck 
set is at least double that of an alternat- 
ing current machine. As there are mov- 
ing parts in a direct current machine, it 
follows that there must be some wear and 
a limit to its life. 

The manufacturers of course claim that 
these disadvantages are offset by advan- 
tages which alternating current machines 
do not possess. 

ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES 

The alternating current machine con- 
sists of a special transformer designed to 



Electric Welding 231 

meet any A. C. power supply, voltage or 
frequency. Without referring to the qual- 
ity of the weld, or to the efficiency, because 
the advocates of both systems claim that 
good welds can be made with their ma- 
chines and of course each claims greater 
efficiency, the advantages which the alter- 
nating current machine would seem to pos- 
sess are: 

1st. Low first cost. 

2nd. Maintenance cost none. 

3rd. More portable as the transformer 
weighs less than 300 pounds. 

4th. Any type of electrode can be used. 

KINDS OF ELECTRODES 

Formerly a carbon electrode was almost 
universally used, but of late years the 
metal electrode has received more atten- 
tion and at the present time is in much 
greater favor. "With the carbon electrode, 
the welding is accomplished very much the 
same as in oxy-acetylene welding; that is, 
the electrode, which is a carbon pencil from 
I/4" to iy 2 " in diameter and pointed at the 
end, was held in the right hand correspond- 
ing with the welding torch, while the filler 
rod is held in the left hand, the arc being 
substituted in every respect for the acety- 
lene flame. 

In the metal electrode process, the elec- 



232 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

trode is a metal wire of a diameter ranging 
from about %" to 3/16". This wire is 
gradually melted by the heat of the arc and 
the molten metal is deposited on the work 
being welded. This wire therefore serves 
the double purpose of forming the arc and 
supplying the filler material. When using 
the metal electrode, the heat is not so in- 
tense as when using the carbon electrode. 
The heat spreads over a smaller area and 
enables the operator to deposit the metal 
accurately. 

Metal electrodes can be divided into two 
classes — bare and covered — but there are 
several kinds of covered. As the name im- 
plies, the bare electrode is simply the'bare 
wire. It is claimed that the bare wire is 
improved by dipping it in milk of lime 
(white-wash). This is done by dipping in 
a tank and allowing it to dry or the welder 
can have at his side a bottle of the white- 
wash and dip the wire into it from time 
to time as occasion requires. 

As stated above, there are several kinds 
of covered electrodes. The covering in 
the main consists of asbestos which has 
been impregnated with chemicals. 

The principal object of this covering is 
to protect the molten metal and prevent 
oxidation. In addition to the covering 
mentioned, one brand of wire has a small 
aluminum wire wrapped around it to fur- 



Electric Welding 233 

ther prevent oxidation. In England the 
covered wire is almost universally used, 
while in this country just the reverse is 
true, Naturally the covered wire is more 
expensive, costing from two to five times 
as much as the bare wire. In the tests 
which were made by the Welding Commit- 
tee of the U. S. Shipping Board, no differ- 
ence was noted in the quality of the weld 
made by either kind. It is a fact, how- 
ever, that a beginner can hold the arc bet- 
ter with the coated wire and it is recom- 
mended that he use it until he has become 
proficient. 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR ELECTRODE WIRE 

Whether bare or covered electrodes ars> 
used, the opinion is universal that the com- 
position and quality of the welding wire 
should be of the very best. There is of 
course some difference of opinion as to 
the composition of the wire even in the 
welding of mild steel. These differences 
are due largely to the desire to obtain in 
some instances greater ductility, while in 
the other cases superior tensile strength is 
sought. 

It may be of interest to some to know 
that the Welding Committee of the Emer- 
gency Fleet Corporation gave the question 
of welding wire serious consideration, and 
with some slight changes the following 



234 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

specifications for electric welding in con- 
nection with mild steel were issued: 

i. Chemical Composition. 

Carbon not over 0.18% 

Manganese " " 0.55% 

Phosphorus " " 0.05% 

Sulphur " " 0.05% 

Silican " " 0.08% 

2. Sizes and Weights. 

Dia. Lbs. per 100 ft. Ft. per 100 Lbs. 
%" 4.16 2400 

5/32" 6.51 1535 

3/16" 9.37 1066 

3. Material. 

The material from which the wire is 
manufactured shall be made by any ap- 
proved process. Material made by pud- 
dling process not permitted. 

4. Physical Properties. 

Wire to be of uniform homogeneous 
structure, free from oxides, pipes, seams, 
etc., as proved by photomicrographs. 

5. Workmanship and Finish. 

(a) Electric welding wire shall be of the 
quality and finish known as the "Bright 
Hard," or "Bright Soft" finish— "Black 
Annealed," or "Bright Annealed" wire 
shall not be supplied. 



Electric Welding 235 

(b) The surface shall be free from rust, 
oil, or grease ; a slight amount due to lubri- 
cation during last drawing' is permissible. 

6. Tests. 

Electrodes must, before shipment or 
after delivery, show good commercial weld- 
ability when tested by an experienced arc 
welder. The electrode material shall flow 
smoothly in relatively small particles 
through the arc without any detrimental 
phenomena. 

7. Delivery, Packing and Shipping. 

Electrodes shall be furnished in straight 
lengths of either 14 or 28 inches; put up 
in bundles of 50 or 100 pounds as ordered. 
Each bundle shall be wrapped in heavy 
paper securely wired and marked on one 
end showing diameter, trade name and 
grade of wire. 

PROTECTION FOR THE OPERATOR 

The light and heat from the arc are ex- 
tremely strong, that of the carbon arc be- 
ing much more intense than when using the 
metal electrode. It is absolutely necessary 
that the eyes and the skin of the operator 
be well protected. 

The helmet is also extensively used for 
metal electrode work, although a metal 
shield fitted with dark glasses and held in 
the left hand is favored by many. 



236 Oocy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

Shields of various design, employing 
very dark glasses, are used. 

For carbon arc work, helmets partially 
or entirely covering the head are univer- 
sally used, as this type allows free use of 
both hands. 

INFORMATION REQUIRED OF PROSPECTIVE USER 

Those considering the installation of 
Electric Arc Welding equipment should 
furnish the manufacturer with at least the 
following information : 

1. What is your power supply (kilowatts 
available)? 

If D. C. — give voltage. 
If A. C. — give voltage, frequency and 
phase. 

2. Are power factor, cost of power and 
amount of power limiting considerations? 

3. Approximately, how many arcs do you 
require ? 

(a) Portable. 

(b) Stationary. 

4. Is a large amount of work in prospect 
or but occasional jobs ? 

5. Is your work mostly repair jobs, or is 
it new construction? 

6. If new construction, state thickness 
of metal, type of joint desired, and if pos- 
sible furnish blue print or sketch showing 
work. 



Electric Welding 237 

7. State if metal to be welded is mild 
steel, high carbon steel, alloy steel. 

8. Will it be possible to keep each man 
on the same job at all times, if a diversity 
of applications are used? 

LENGTH OF ARC 

The use of a short arc with metal elec- 
trode is universally recommended. If a 
long arc is used, burnt, spongy metal is sure 
to result. With certain types of direct cur- 
rent machines, it is possible to operate with 
a long arc, and this fact is objected to by 
competitors on the ground that the oper- 
ator becoming weary, might, because it 
required less attention, draw a long arc and 
produce faulty work. 

One reason for the objection to the long 
arc is that more heated metal is exposed 
to the air for a longer time than is pos- 
sible using a short arc. As all of the metal 
is for a time molten and at least a portion 
of it in the form of vapor, it is in an ideal 
condition to become oxidized and absorb 
gases detrimental to it. The short arc is 
difficult to maintain. A steady hand is 
of prime importance. Sports and cigar- 
ette fiends had better try some other vo- 
cation. 

When one considers that the electrode 
should be held about % of an inch away 
from the metal and this distance mam- 



238 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

tained as the electrode is melted away, he 
will realize that it requires both skill and 
patience. 

WHAT METALS CAN BE WELDED 

Steel, iron and their various alloys can 
"be welded with the electric arc. The writer 
feels that, viewed by the present state of 
the art, the great field for arc welding lies 
with steel and wrought iron. One fault to 
be found with the advocates of oxy-acety- 
lene and electric welding is that they both 
claim too much — the claims overlap. There 
that. There must be and is certain work 
wherein oxy-acetylene is better adapted 
is enough business for all without doing 
than electric, and of course the arc can do 
some things faster and cheaper than acety- 
lene. The prospective purchaser of weld- 
ing equipment is entitled to know which 
process is best adapted for his particular 
work. Broadly speaking, for general re- 
pair work — welding of steel, cast iron, 
brass, bronze and aluminum, the oxy- 
acetylene process will be found better 
adapted. 

If the work is mainly repairing steel or 
the welding of steel sheets or plates of say 
V4" thickness and greater, then the electric 
arc with current below 2c per K. W. H. 
will be found to be cheaper and faster. The 
electric people make rather broad claims as 



Electric Welding 239 

to the welding of cast iron. The writer 
cannot grow enthusiastic over it. The lat- 
est method of repairing cast iron breaks as 
advocated by the manufacturers of electric 
equipment is to drill staggered holes on 
both sides of the break, thread and screw in 
steel studs and then join the studs by lacing- 
back and forth. Where the steel joins the 
cast iron might be well likened to a caulking 
edge. This makes a satisfactory repair in 
most instances, but could hardly be called 
a true weld. It is unsightly as compared 
with an oxy-acetylene weld, and when one 
considers the preparation of drilling and 
tapping the holes, inserting stud bolts and 
then welding, the cost is apt to be more than 
with the acetylene torch. 

Of course, if one had only an electric 
welder, by all means use it for cast iron 
repairs on the theory of "any port in a 
storm. ' ' 

PREPARATION OF THE METAL FOR WELDING 

The preparing of the metal for electric 
welding does not differ materially from 
that of oxy-acetylene. On sheet steel or 
iron up to 3/16 inch in thickness it is not 
necessary to bevel, while on metal from % 
inch to y 2 inch in thickness and over, it is 
necessary to bevel on one side. On metal 
y 2 inch thickness and over, it is necessary 
to bevel from both sides. The pieces to 



240 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

be welded should not be butted close to- 
gether, but spaced slightly, about y 8 ". 
While in oxy-acetylene it is desirable that 
the metal should be cleaned of rust, grease 
and dirt, in electric welding this is ab- 
solutely necessary. Everything that has 
been said in the preceding chapters rela- 
tive to preparing work for oxy-acety- 
lene welding will apply when using the 
arc. 

For cleaning purposes either a sand 
blast, chisel and hammer, wire brush, or 
emery wheel must be used. After a layer 
of tiller material has been made and before 
the next layer is started, it is necessary to 
clean the oxide off with a wire brush or 
other means. This is very important as 
this oxide will be incorporated with the 
weld and lessen the strength if it is not 
removed. In oxy-acetylene welding the ox- 
ide is floated out, but this cannot be done 
with either the carbon or metal electrode, 
although the carbon arc does by reason of 
its greater heat tend to do this to some 
extent. 

The preparing of cast iron has already 
been touched on wherein we stated that 
practically all manufacturers of electric 
equipment now recommend that staggered 
holes be drilled on each side of the weld 
and these holes threaded and steel studs 
screwed in. 



Electric Welding 241 

EXPANSION" AND CONTRACTION 

While the heat from the electric arc is 
greater and its effect more local than the 
oxy-acetylene flame, attention must still 
be given to the matter of expansion and 
contraction. The same advice and the same 
rules which we have laid down on this sub- 
ject under oxy-acetylene welding apply to 
electric arc, although in some instances to 
not quite the same degree. He who ignores 
this will in time find himself in trouble. 
Just remember heat expands, and as 
"what gets hot must get cold," contraction 
follows. 

INSTRUCTIONS TO BEGINNERS 

After the machine is installed and before 
any welding is attempted, the beginner 
should familiarize himself with its various 
parts. If the company has an electrician, 
he should be instructed to point out to the 
man selected to do the welding the location 
and purpose of the essential parts of the 
machine. By preference, choose a young 
man for an operator, but by all means 
choose an intelligent one. Too often com- 
mon labor of a low order of intelligence is 
selected with disappointing results. 

After the operator understands the uses 
of the various parts, get a piece of scrap 
boiler plate and place it on the welding 



242 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

table to practice on. Clean this plate of 
all rust, scale, grease or paint. Fasten a 
piece of 5/32" welding wire in the electrode 
holder. Sit on a stool and put on helmet. 
The helmet is preferred to the hand shield 
for the beginner, as it permits free use of 
both hands. A green man is apt to be 
nervous and he will find that he can hold 
the wire steadier with both hands than he 
can with one. Touch the end of the weld- 
ing wire to the boiler plate. A spark will 
result and the wire will be very apt to 
stick to the plate. If it does, pull it loose, 
and next time try touching the plate by 
scratching the welding wire sidewise. A 
spark will result and then try to draw the 
wire about %" away from the plate. Try 
this again and again, using up 100 pieces 
of wire if necessary until an arc can be 
maintained. 

When satisfied that an arc can be main- 
tained, it is then necessary to learn to main- 
tain a short arc. This is of the utmost im- 
portance. The arc should be about % of an 
inch long, and if instead it is % or % of an 
inch, the weld will be of no value. With 
some types of machines it is impossible to 
hold any other kind of an arc than a short 
arc so that what we have said does not 
apply, but with other types of machines, it 
is possible to have a longer arc, and what 
we want to do is to warn against it. 



Electric Welding 243 

The next thing to impress upon the be- 
ginner 's mind is where and how the molten 
metal from the electrode is to be deposited 
on to the sheet or casting being welded. 
During the operation of learning to main- 
tain the arc, the operator should watch the 
effect of the heat on the sheet or casting. 
He will notice that a small pool of molten 
metal is produced. Now it is necessary 
that the molten metal from the electrode 
wire be deposited drop by drop on or in 
this small pool of molten metal. Too much 
metal should not be added at a time for the 
reason that it will run over the edge of the 
pool and be deposited on metal which is not 
in a molten state, with the result that while 
it sticks to a certain extent, it is far from 
being welded. Aside from current regula- 
tions these two things are the most impor- 
tant in the manipulation of the arc, that is, 
maintaining a short arc and depositing the 
molten metal from the wire on the right 
place. 

The beginner should next practice de- 
positing metal on to a plate in order to 
obtain control. He can first draw a line 
with a piece of soapstone and try to follow 
this line. After he has gained some skill 
in doing this, he will then try to do the 
same thing without having a line by which 
to be guided. After making a number of 
these kinds of welds, which are really after 



244 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

all simply a " building -up" process, he 
should take a chisel and hammer and ex- 
amine them. He will probably find that 
at the beginning of the weld it will chip off 
readily, and this is largely due to having 
held too long an arc. He should also ex- 
amine the weld at its end or where he left 
off and he will notice that a sunken place 
or crater has been left at the point where 
the arc was broken. If this crater is too 
deep or of too great a diameter, it will be 
difficult to start welding at this point. Ob- 
viously, the thing to do is to try and not 
leave a large crater when breaking the arc, 
and this result is best obtained by crowd- 
ing down the arc until enough metal is 
added and then suddenly breaking the arc 
by pulling the wire quickly to one side. 
After practicing this sufficiently long 
enough to obtain good adhesion and proper 
alignment, the operator should then try 
building up or adding a layer on to another. 
After one layer has been made and before 
starting another, it is absolutely necessary, 
as stated before, that the added metal 
should be thoroughly cleaned of oxides and 
scale. This is done by means of a wire 
brush or chisel and hammer. The means 
used are of no consequence, but it must be 
absolutely clean if a good weld is to be 
expected. When this work has been done 
S r + innt the operator feels that he is fairly 



Electric Welding 245 

proficient and lias confidence in himself, he 
then can start -on welding two pieces to- 
gether. We have already explained how 
the pieces should be beveled and separated 
preparatory to starting the work. He 
should practice flat welding first and learn 
to do this thoroughly. Then he can start 
welding on a plate inclined to an angle of 
45°, and when he has this mastered, he can 
raise the plate to an angle of 90° and prac- 
tice in that position. 



246 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 
TABLES AND USEFUL INFORMATION 

WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS METALS 

Av. weight Av. weight 

of 1 cu. ft. of 1 cu. in. 

in pounds in pounds 

Grey Iron 450 .2606 

Wrought Iron 480 .278 

Mercury 849 .491 

Silver 655 .579 

Aluminum 162 .0932 

Cast Copper 542 .313 

Rolled Copper 555 .321 

Steel 490 .283 

Tin 459 .265 

Zinc 437.5 .252 



METRIC AND ENGLISH SYSTEMS 



1 pound 

1 inch 

lfoot 

1 mile 

1 sq. inch 

1 sq. foot 

1 cubic inch 

1 cubic foot 

1 quart 

1 Kilogram 

1 Millimeter 

1 metre 

1 Kilometer 

1 Sq. Millimeter 

1 Sq. Metre 

1 Cu. Centimeter equivalent to 

1 Cu. Metre equivalent to 

1 Litre equivalent to 



.4536 
25.4 
.3048 
1.6094 



equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 645.2 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 
equivalent to 



Kilograms 
Millimeters 
Meters 
Kilometers 
Sq. Millimeters 
.09291 Sq. Meters 
16.39 Cu. Centimeters 
.02832 Cu. Meters 
1.101 Litres 
2.2047 Pounds 
.0394 Inches 
3.2807 Feet 
.6213 Miles 
.00155 Sq. Inch 
10.763 Sq. Feet 

.0610 Cubic Inch 
35.3105 Cubic Feet 
61.017 Cubic Inches 



Electric Welding 
TABLE SHOWING THE ORDER OF 



247 



Malleability 


Ductility 


Tenacity 


Infusibility 


Gold 


Platinum 


Iron 


Platinum 


Silver 


Silver 


Copper 


Iron 


Aluminum 


Iron 


Aluminum 


Copper 


Copper 


Copper 


Platinum 


Gold 


Tin 


Gold 


Silver 


Silver 


Lead 


Aluminum 


Zinc 


Aluminum 


Zinc 


Zinc 


Gold 


Lead 


Platinum 


Tin 


Tin 


Zinc 


Iron 


Lead 


Lead 


Tin 



To transform temperature readings from Centi- 
grade to Fahrenheit double the centigrade number, 
diminish it by one-tenth of itself and add 32. As an 
example: 100 degrees Centigrade is equivalent to 212 
degrees Fahrenheit. Doubling 100 gives us 200, deduct- 
ing one-tenth leaves 180 and adding 32 we have 212. 

For changing Fahrenheit into Centigrade the rule 
is, subtract 32, increase the remainder by one-ninth of 
itself and take one-half. 

To find diameter of a circle multiply circumference 
by .31831. 

To find circumference of a circle multiply diameter 
by 3.141G. 

To find area of a circle multiply square of diameter 
by .7854. 

To find surface of a ball multiply square of diameter 
by 3.1416. 

To find side of an equal square multiply diameter by 
.8862. 

To find cubic inches in a ball multiply cube of diam- 
eter by .5236. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity 
four times. 

Double riveting is from 16 to 20 per cent, stronger 
than single. 

A gallon of water (U. S. Standard) weighs 8 1-3 
pounds and contains 231 cubic inches. 

A cubic foot of water contains 7% gallons, 1728 cubic 
inches, and weighs 62% pounds. 



'248 Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 

To sharpen dull files lay them in dilute sulphuric acid 
until they are eaten deep enough. 

A horse power is equivalent to raising 33,000 pounds 
one foot per minute, or 550 pounds one foot per second. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a 
column of water, multiply the height of the column in 
feet by .434. 



INDEX 

PAGE 

Acetylene, compressed 11 

Acetylene, cost of generating 14 

Acetylene, cost of tanked 14 

Acetylene, different methods of generating • 9 

Acetylene discovered 7 

Acetylene, effect of heat on 10 

Acetylene flame, regulation of 97 

Acetylene, generator 71 

Acetylene, hottest flame known 22 

Acetylene, how exploded 10 

Acetylene, how obtained 7, 8 

Acetylene, ignition point 24 

Acetylene, its composition 7 

Acetylene, manufacturers of compressed 24 

Acetylene, specific gravity of 23 

Acetylene, toxic action 13 

Acetylene, weight of 23 

All welded door and flue sheets 150 

All welded fire box 148 

Alternating current machines 231 

Aluminum oil pan, welding of 184 

Aluminum solder 200 

Aluminum, soldering 198 

Aluminum, welding of 115 

Arc, length of 237 

Arc welding 229 

Automobile cylinder, welding of 178 

Automobile frames, welding of 190 

Best gas for welding 21 

Beveling 86 

Blow holes in cast-iron 107 

Boiler flues, welding of 176 

Boiler welding 141 

Brass and bronze, welding of 113 

Brass welding 113 

Bridges of flue sheet, welding of 162 

Bronze welding 113 

Building up caulking edge 174 

Butt welding 228 

249 



250 INDEX 

PAGE. 

Calcium carbide 7 

Calcium carbide, discovery of 7 

Calcium carbide, gas yield of 14 

Calcium carbide, its manufacture . 8 

Calcium carbide, manufacturers of 24 

Calcium carbide, price of 14 

Carbon burning 206 

Cast-iron, blow holes in 107 

Cast-iron, hard spots in 105 

Cast-iron welding 104 

Caulking edge, building up 174 

Chemistry of oxygen and acetylene combustion .... 51 

Clamps for sheet metal 204 

Combustion, chemistry of oxygen and acetylene . . 51 

Composition of acetylene 7 

Compressed acetylene 11 

Contraction of metals 92; 

Copper acetylide 23 

Copper, welding of 114 

Cost card for shop ."....,. 213 

Cost of generating acetylene 14 

Cost of tanked acetylene 14 

Crack, welding of 155 

Cracks in side sheet, welding of 159 

Cracks in throat sheet, welding of 159 

Crank case arm, welding of . 183 

Crank shaft, welding of 188 

Cutting, oxygen required for 61 

Cutting torch 58 

Cutting torch, first users of 61 

Cutting torch, operation of 59 

Design of weld 221, 222 

Dies, welding of 195 

Direct current machines 230 

Disadvantages of generator 20 

Discovery of acetylene 7 

Discovery of calcium carbide 7 

Dissociation point of a fuel gas 22 

Door and flue sheets, all welded 150 

Door collars, welding of 167 

Door holes, welding of 170 

Effect of heat on acetylene 10 

Effect on metal of cutting 62 



INDEX 251 

PAGE 

Electric welding 226 

Electric welding, preparation for 239 

Electrode wire 234 

Endothermic compound 22 

Execution of a weld 100 

Expansion of metals 92 

Finishing a weld while hot 204 

Fire box, all welded 148 

Flame propagation, effect of 44 

Flame, regulation of acetylene 97 

Flash-back 44 

Flue sheet, welding bridges of 162 

Fly wheel, welding of 185 

Gauges 70 

Generator, acetylene 71 

Generator, disadvantages of 20 

Generator outfit, installing 80 

Generator, portable 75 

Generators, carbide to water 9 

Goggles 71 

Hard spots in cast-iron 105 

High carbon steel, welding of 112 

High pressure torch 47 

Hydrogen for cutting 63 

Ignition point of acetylene 24 

Installing generator outfit 80 

Installing tank outfit 76 

Instructions for electric arc welding 241 

Jig for holding crank shafts 188 

Joint, type of 218-220 

Kind of weld * 224 

Lead burning 120 

Leaking regulator 69 

Length of arc 237 

Low pressure torch 47 

Machine welding - 129 

Malleable iron, welding of 119 

Manganese steel, welding of 197 

Manufacture of calcium carbide 8 

Manufacturers of calcium carbide 24 

Metals, contraction of 92 

Metals, expansion of 92 

Metals, melting point of 97 

Metals welded with the arc 238 



252 INDEX 

PAGE 

Methods of generating acetylene 9 

Nipples, welding of 128 

Operation of cutting torch 59 

Oxygen 27 

Oxygen manufacturers, policy of 35 

Oxygen, market price of 35 

Oxygen, methods of making 28 

Oxygen, purity of 41 

Oxygen regulator 66 

Oxygen required for cutting 61 

Oxygen, specific gravity of . 27 

Oxygen, weight of 27 

Patch, welding of .* 155 

Pipe,, speed of welding 139 

Pipe, tests of welded 138 

Pipe, welding of 132 

Position of weld 223 

Price of oxygen 35 

Pre-heating methods 88 

Preparation for electric welding 239 

Preparing for welding . 85 

Price of calcium carbide 14 

Price of oxygen 35 

Questionnaire for electric welder prospect 236 

Receipt ticket for shop 216 

Regulation of acetylene flame 97 

Regulator, care of 68 

Regulator, leaking 69 

Regulator, oxygen 66 

Repairing scored cylinders 200 

Resistance welding 226 

Rod, size of welding 102 

Sheet-iron, welding of 122 

Soldering aluminum 198 

Specifications for electrode wire 234 

Specific gravity of acetylene 23 

Specific gravity of oxygen 27 

Speed of pipe welding 139 

Spot welding 228 

Stake for holding sheet-iron 125 

Steel, welding of high carbon 112 

Steel, welding of mild : 109 

Symbols, welding 218-225 

Tables of useful information 246 

Tank outfit, installing 76 



INDEX 253 



PAGE 



Temperature, effect on gas pressure of 36 

Tempering 203 

Tests of welded pipe 138 

Torch, cutting 58 

Torch, high pressure 47 

Torch, low pressure 47 

Torch, objections to low pressure 55 

Torches, kinds of welding 46 

Torches, opinion of authorities on 48 

Toxic action of acetylene 13 

Type of joint 218-220 

Type of weld 225 

Useful information 246 

Weight of acetylene 23 

Weight of oxygen 27 

Weld, design of 221, 222 



Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 



Welded pipe, tests of 138 



Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 



execution of a 100 

kind of 224 

position of 223 

type of 225 



ng aluminum oil pan 184 

ng, arc 229 

ng auto cylinder 178 

ng auto frames 190 

ng, best gas for 21 

ng boiler flues 176 

ng boilers 141 

ng bridges of flue sheet 162 

ng, butt 228 

ng cast-iron 104 

ng cracks in side sheet 159 

ng cracks in throat sheet . 159 

ng crank case arm 183 

ng crank shaft 188 

ng door collars 167 

ng door holes 170 

ng door sheet with sides riveted 154 

ng double mud-ring patch 165 

ng, electric 226 

ng fire box three feet high 145 

ng fly wheel . 185 

ng half door sheets 151 

ng high carbon to low carbon steel 196 

ng horizontal crack in flue sheet knuckle . . 171 



254 INDEX 

PAGE 



Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
W r eld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 
Weld 



ng horse 193 

ng large cylinder 187 

ng locomotive half side sheet 141 

ng lug on cylinder . 181 

ng manganese steel 197 

ng mud-ring patch around fire-box 1G6 

ng of aluminum 115 

ng of brass and bronze 113 

ng of copper 114 

ng of dies 195 

ng of high carbon steel 112 

ng of malleable iron 119 

ng of mild steel 109 

ng of nipples in sheet-iron 128 

ng of pipe 132 

ng of sheet-iron 122 

ng patch 155 

ng patch at edge of flue sheet 173 

ng patch at top of flue sheet 164 

ng patch in center of flue sheet 163 

ng, preparing for 85 

ng, resistance 226 

ng rod, size of 102 

ng sheet to mud-ring 175 

ng simple crack 155 

ng, spot 228 

ng symbols 218-225 

ng tank partitions • • • • 191 

ng torches 46 

ng vertical crack in flue sheet knuckle 172 



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INDEX TO SUBJECTS 



Accidents 27 

Air Brake 25 

Arithmetic 15, 29, 37 

Automobiles. . .3, 4, 5, 6, 7 

Automobile Charts 7 

Aviation 8 

Batteries 19 

Bevel Gears 22 

Brazing and Soldering. . 9 * 

Cams 22 

Carburetors 5 

Car Charts 9 

Charts 7, 8, 9, 10 

Chemistry 10 

Coal 27 

Coke 10 

Compressed Air 10 

Concrete 11, 12, 13 

Cosmetics 34 

Dictionaries 14, 19 

Dies— Metal Work 13 

Drawing — Sketching 

Paper 14, 15 

Dynamo 15, 16 

Electric Bells 16 

Electricity, 

15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 

Electroplating 20 

Ford Automobile 6 

Gas and Gasoline Engines 

21, 22 

Gearing and Cams 22 

Hydraulics 22 

Ice and Refrigeration... 23 
Inventions — Patents .... 23 

Knots 23 

Lathe Work 24 

Link Motion 26 

Liquid Air 25 

Locomotive Engineering, 

25, 26, 27, 28 
Machinery and Machine 
Shop Practice 28, 29, 30, 31 



Manual Training 32 

Marine Engineering .... 32 
Mechanical Movements . 30 

Metal Work Dies 13 

Mining 32 

Model Making 33 

Motor Boats 33 

Motorcycles 33 

Motor Truck 4 

Paper, Drawing 14 

Patents and Inventions. . 23 

Pattern Making 34 

Perfumery 34 

Plumbing ..34, 35 

Radio 16, 18, 19 

Recipe Book 35, 40 

Refrigeration and Ice. . . 23 
Repairing Automobiles. . . 6 

Rubber 36 

Saws 36 

Screw Cutting 36 

Sheet Metal Work 13 

Smoke Prevention ....>.. 27 

Soldering 9 

Starting Systems 5 

Steam Engineering. .. .36, 37 
Steam Heating and Ven- 
tilating 38 

Steel 38 

Storage Batteries 19 

Switchboards 17 

Tapers 24 

Telephone 20 

Thread Cutting 29 

Tool Making 31 

Tractor 6, 39 

Ventilation 38 

Waterproofing 13 

Welding 5, 39 

Wiring 17, 18, 20 

Wireless Telegraphy, 

15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 



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Name parts of an induction coil. How are valves timed? 
What is an electric motor starter and how does it work? 
What are advantages of worm drive gearing? Name all 
important types of ball and roller bearings. What is a 
"three-quarter" floating axle? — etc., etc. Answers every 
question asked relating to the modern automobile. A popu- 
lar work at a popular price. S l A x 7 l />. Cloth, 701 pages, 
387 illustrations, 3 folding plates. New Edition just pub- 
lished. Price, $2.50 



How to Run an Automobile. 

By Victor W. Page. This treatise gives concise instruc- 
tions for starting and running all makes of gasoline auto- 
mobiles, how to care for them, and gives distinctive features 
of control. # Describes every step for shifting gears, con- 
trolling engine, etc. Among the chapters contained are: 
I. Automobile Parts and Their Functions. II. General 
Starting and Driving Instructions. III. Typical Control 
Systems — Care of Automobiles. Thoroughly illustrated. 178 
pages, 72 illustrations. Price, $1.50 



The Modern Motor Truck, Its Design, Construc- 
tion, Operation and Repair. 

By Victor W. Page. Just off the press and treats on all 
types of motor trucks and industrial tractors and trailers. 
It considers all types of _ trucks, gasoline # and electric and 
all varieties of truck bodies. This book is^ written in lan- 
guage everyone can understand and is not in any sense of 
the word a technical treatise. It is a practical volume that 
will make special appeal to the truck driver who seeks to 
better his position and to the mechanic charged with the 
repair and upkeep of trucks. The factory or business exec- 
utive who wants to obtain a complete working knowledge of 
truck operation problems will find this book a reference work 
of great value. The truck salesman or automobile dealer 
will find that this work contains information that means 
money to them. All garage and service station men should 
have a copy of this book for reference^ because truck con- 
struction differs from passenger car design in many impor- 
tant respects. Anyone who reads this book is in touch with 
all the practical features that have been tested out in real 
service. Just Issued. Cloth, 6x9, 800 pages, 750 illus- 
trations. Price, $5.00 



Gasoline and Kerosene Carburetors, Construction, 
Installation and Adjustment. 

By Victor W. Page All leading types of carburetors are 
described in detail, special attention being given to the forms 
devised to use the cheaper fuels such as kerosene. Carbure- 
tion troubles, fuel system troubles, carburetor repairs and 
installation, electric primers and economizers, hot spot mani- 
folds and all modern carburetor developments are considered 
in a thorough manner. _ Methods of adjusting all types of 
carburetors are fully discussed as well as suggestions for 
securing maximum fuel economy and obtaining highest en- 
gine power. 250 pages, 89 illustrations. Price, $2.00 

Automobile Starting, Lighting and Ignition Sys- 
tems. 

By Victor W. Page. A practical treatise on latest auto- 
mobile starting, lighting and ignition system practice. This 
practical volume has been written with special reference to 
the requirements of the reader desiring easily understood 
explanatory matter relating to all types of automobile elec- 
trical systems. It can be understood by anyone, even with- 
out electrical knowledge, because elementary electrical prin- 
ciples are considered before any attempt is made to discuss 
features of the various systems. These basic principles are 
clearly stated and illustrated with simple diagrams. All the 
leading systems of starting, lighting and ignition have been 
described and illustrated with the cooperation of the experts 
employed by the manufacturers. Over 200 wiring diagrams 
are shown in both technical and nontechnical forms. Com- 
plete data is given for locating troubles in all systems, the 
various steps being considered in a logical^ way for those 
without expert electrical knowledge. < All ignition systems 
receive full consideration, starting with the simplest battery 
and coil forms found on early cars to the modern short- 
contact timer and magneto methods used with the latest eight 
and twelve-cylinder motors. Full directions are given for 
making all repairs and complete instructions for locating 
troubles with meters. _ This book is unusually complete, as 
it also includes descriptions of various accessories operated 
by electric current, such as electrical gear shifts, brake actua- 
tion, signaling devices, vulcanizers, etc. This is the standard 
book on this subject. It is used for instruction purposes in 
every automobile school and college in this country. Over 
800 pages, 492 specially made engravings and wiring diagrams. 
New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Price, $3.00 

Automobile Welding with the Oxy-Acetylene 
Flame. 

By M. Keith Dunham. Explains in a simple manner ap- 
paratus to be used, its care, and how to construct necessary 
shop equipment. Proceeds then to the actual welding of all 
automobile parts, in a manner understandable by everyone. 
Gives principles never to be j 'or gotten. This book is of ut- 
most value, since the perplexing problems arising when metal 
is heated to a melting point are fully explained and the 
proper methods to overcome them shown. 167 pages, fully 
illustrated. Price, $1.50 



Automobile Repairing Made Easy. 

By Victor W. Page. A thoroughly practical book contain- 
ing complete directions for making repairs to all parts of the 
motor car mechanism. Written in a thorough but non- 
technical manner. Gives plans for workshop construction, 
suggestions for equipment, power needed, machinery and 
tools necessary to carry on business successfully. Tells how 
to overhaul and repair all parts of all automobiles. The 
information given is founded on practical experience, every- 
thing is explained so simply that motorists and students can 
acquire a full working knowledge of automobile repairing. 
Other works dealing with repairing cover only certain parts 
of the car — this work starts with the engine, then considers 
carburetion, ignition, cooling and lubrication systems. The 
clutch, change speed gearing and transmission system are 
considered in detail. Contains instructions for repairing 
all types of axles, steering gears 'and other chassis parts. 
Many tables, short cuts in figuring and rules of practice 
are given for the mechanic. Explains fully valve and mag- 
neto timing, "tuning" engines, systematic location of trouble, 
repair of ball and roller bearing, shop kinks, first aid to 
injured and a multitude of subjects of interest to all in the 
garage and repair business. This book also contains Special 
Instructions on Electric Starting, Lighting and Ignition Sys- 
tems, Tire Repairing and Rebuilding, Autogenous Welding, 
Brazing and Soldering, Heat Treatment of Steel, Latest 
Timing Practice, Eight and Twelve-Cylinder Motors, etc., 
etc. You will never "Get Stuck" on a Job if you own 
this book. 1,000 specially made engravings on 500 plates. 
1,056 pages (5J4 x 8). New Edition. Price, $4.00 

The Model T Ford Car, Its Construction, Opera- 
tion and Repair, Including the Fordson Farm 
Tractor, F. A. Lighting and Starting System, 
Ford Motor Truck. 

By Victor W. Page. This is the most complete and prac- 
tical instruction book ever published on the Ford car and 
Fordson tractor. All parts of the Ford Model T car and 
Fordson tractor are described and illustrated in a compre- 
hensive manner. The construction is fully treated and op- 
erating principle made clear to everyone. Complete in- 
structions for driving and repairing are given. To the New 
Revised Edition matter has been added on the Ford Truck 
and Tractor Conversion Sets and Genuine Fordson Trac- 
tor. All parts are described. All repair processes illustrated 
and fully explained. Written so all can understand — no 
theory, no guesswork. New revised and enlarged Edition 
just published. 153 illustrations, 410 pages, 2 large folding 
plates. Price, $2.00 

Automobilisfs Pocket Companion and Expense 
Record. 

By Victor W. Page. This book is not only valuable as a 
convenient cost record, but contains much information of 
value to motorists. Includes a condensed digest of auto laws 
of all States. A collection of practical facts for the every- 
day motorist. Convenient pocket size. Price, $1.50 



Automobile Charts 

By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.S.A.E. 

UNIFORM SIZE— 24" x 38" — PRICE 35 CENTS EACH 
t ■ l 

location of Gasoline Engine Troubles Made Easy. 

This chart shows clearly all parts of a typical four-cylinder 
gasoline engine of the four-cycle type. It simplifies location of all 
engine troubles. No details omitted. (24x38.) Price, 35 cents 

Location of Carburetion Troubles Made Easy. 

It shows clearly how to find carburetion troubles and names 
all defects liable to exist in the various parts. Instructions are 
given for carburetor adjustment, vacuum feed tank troubles, pressure 
feed system, etc. (24 x 38-) Price, 35 cents 

Location of Ignition System Troubles Made Easy. 

In this chart all parts of a typical double ignition system using 
battery and magneto current are shown, and suggestions are given 
for readily finding ignition troubles and eliminating them when 
found. Includes latest Delco, Connecticut and other systems. (24 
x 38.) Price, 35 cents 

Location of Cooling and Lubricating Troubles. 

This is a combination chart showing all components of the ap- 
proved form of water cooling group as well as a modern engine 
lubrication system. It shows all points where defects exist that 
may result in engine overheating, both incooling and oiling systems. 
(24 x 38.) Price, 35 cents 

Lubrication'of the Motor Car Chassis. 

This chart presents the plan view of a typical'six-cylinder chassis 
©f standard design and outlines all important bearing points re- 
quiring lubrication, and is a valuable guide to the correct lubrication 
of any modern car. A practical chart for all interested in motop 
car maintenance. (24 x 38.) Price, 35 cents 

I While ' each of the above five charts are complete, the set covers all 
maintenance instructions for the entire automobile. 

Location of Starting and Lighting System Faults. 

The most complete chart yet devised, showing all parts of the 
modern automobile starting, lighting and ignition systems, giving in- 
structions for systematic location of all faults in wiring, lamps, 
motor or generator, switches and all other units. Invaluable to 
motorists, chauffeurs and repairmen. Size 24 x 38 inches. 

price, 35 cents 

Location of Ford Engine Troubles Made Easy. 

An enlarged and revised chart showing clear sectional view9 
depicting all portions of the Ford power plant and auxiliary 
groups. It outlines clearly all parts of the engine, fuel supply 
systems, ignition group and cooling system, that are apt to give 
trouble, detailing all derangements that are liable to make an engine 
lose power, start hard, or work irregularly. This chart simplifies 
location of all engine faults, and includes instructions for locating Ford 
electric starter troubles. Size 25 x 38 inches. Price, 35 cents 

Location of Motorcycle Troubles Made Easy. 

This chart simplifies location of all power-plant troubles and 
will prove of value to all who have to do with the operation, repair 
cr sale of motorcycles. No details omitted. Size 20 x 30 inches. 

Price, 35 cents 

7 



AVIATION 



A B C of Aviation. 

By Capt. V. W. Page. This book describes the basic prin- 
ciples of aviation, tells how a balloon or dirigible is made 
and why it floats in the air. Describes how an airplane flies. 
It shows in detail the different parts of an airplane, what 
they are and what they do. Describes all types of airplanes 
and how they differ in construction; as well as detailing the 
advantages and disadvantages of different types of aircraft. 
It includes a complete dictionary of aviation terms and clear 
drawings of leading airplanes. The reader will find simple 
instructions for unpacking, setting up and rigging airplanes. 
A full description of airplane control principles is given and 
methods of flying are discussed at length. 

This book answers every question one can ask about mod- 
ern aircraft, their construction and operation. 275 pages, 
130 specially made illustrations with 7 plates. Price, $2.50 

Aviation Engines — Design; Construction; Repair. 

By Lieut. Victor W. Page, Aviation Section, S.C.U.S.R. 
The matter is logically arranged; all descriptive macter is 
simply expressed and copiously illustrated, so that anyone 
can understand airplane engine operation and repair even if 
without previous mechanical training. This work is inval- 
uable for anyone desiring to become an aviator or aviation 
mechanician. 576 pages, 253 illustrations. Price, $3.00 

Aviation Chart. 

By Lieut. Victor W. Page. A large chart outlining all 
parts of a typical airplane power plant, showing the points 
where trouble is apt to occur and suggesting remedies for 
the common defects. Intended especially for aviators and 
aviation mechanics on school and field duty. 

Price, 35 cents 

Applied Aerodynamics. 

By G. P. Thompson. This is a scientific and mathematical 
treatise that has a special appeal to the student and engineer 
who are seeking exact information on the aerodynamics of 
heavier-than-air craft and data on airplane design testing. 
This book gives an up-to-date presentation of the existing 
state of Aeronautical Science. In addition to a very full 
discussion of the qualities which determine the speed and rate 
of climb of an aeroplane and the method by which they can 
be calculated, special attention is paid to stability — a problem 
now fairly well understood, and to controllability — our knowl- 
edge of which is at present in a much more elementary state. 
Attention is directed_ to the numerous directions in which 
further information is required, especially in the form of 
full-scale experiments. 312 pages (7x10). Illustrated with 
over 142 Diagrams and Graphic Charts. Price, $12.50 

Glossary of Aviation Terms — English-French; 
French-English. 

A complete glossary of practically all terms used in avia- 
tion, having lists in both French and English with equivalents 
in either language compiled by Victor W. Page and Paul 
Montariol. Pricej $1.00 

8 



BRAZING AND SOLDERING 

Brazing and Soldering. 

By James F. Hobart. The only book that shows you just 
how to handle any job of brazing or soldering that comes 
along; it tells ycu what mixture to use, how to make a 
furnace if you need one. Full of valuable kinks. The fifth 
edition of this book has jusl been published, and to it much 
new matter and a large number of tested formulas for all 
kinds of solders and fluxes have been added. 35 cents 

Soldering and Brazing. 

By Raymond Francis Yates. This treatise gives all the 
necessary "kinks" that will enable one to accomplish suc- 
cessful soldering. If a mechanic has not succeeded m his 
soldering, this book may tell him just what he needs to 
produce good work— something that he may heretofore have 
forgotten! Price, 75 cents 

CHARTS 



Modern Submarine Chart— With 200 Parts Num- 
bered and Named. 

A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the 
interior of a submarine of the latest type. No details 
omitted — everything is accurate and to scale. This chart is 
really an encyclopedia of a submarine. Price, 35 cents 

Box Car Chart. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a box car, having every part 
of the car numbered and its proper name given in a refer- 
ence list. Price, 35 cents 

Gondola Car Chart. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a gondola car, having every 
part of the car numbered and its proper reference name given 
in a reference list. Price, 35 cents 

Passenger Car Chart. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a passenger car, haying 
every part of the car numbered and its proper name given 
in a reference list. Price, 35 cents 

Steel Hopper Bottom Coal Car. 

A chart showing the anatomy of a steel hopper bottom coal 
car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper 
name given in a reference list. Price, 35 cents 

Tractive Power Chart. 

A chart whereby you can find the tractive power or drawbar 
pull of any locomotive without making a figure. Shows what 
cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and steam pressure 
affect the power. What sized engine you need to exert a 
given drawbar pull or anything you desire in this line. 
6 Price, 50 cents 



Horse-power Chart. 

Shows the horse-power of any stationary engine without 
calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter of stroke, 
the steam pressure or cut-off, the revolutions, or whether 
condensing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, 
accurate and saves time and calculations. Especially useful 
to engineers and designers. Price, 50 cents 

Boiler Room Chart. 

By George L. Fowler. A chart — size 14 x 28 inches — show- 
ing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in a 
modern boiler room. This chart is really a dictionary of 
the boiler room — the names of more than 200 parts being 
given. Price, 35 cents 

CHEMISTRY 



How to Make and Use a Small Chemical Labo- 
ratory. 

By Raymond Francis Yates. The treatise covers all of the 
essentials of elementary chemistry. The law of definite pro- 
portions, solutions, crystalloids, colloids, electrolysis, etc., are 
explained. The second part of the book is devoted to chemi- 
cal and electro-chemical experiments. Only those experi- 
ments that will tend to broaden the reader's knowledge of 
chemistry in general have been chosen. Price, 75 cents 

COKE 



Coke — Modern Coking Practice, Including An- 
alysis of Materials and Products. 

By J. E. Christopher and T. H. Byrom. This, the standard 
work on the subject, has just been revised and is now issued 
in two volumes. It is a practical work for those engaged in 
Coke manufacture and the recovery of By-products. Fully 
illustrated with folding plates. Among the chapters contained 
in Volume I are: Introduction; Classification of Fuels; Im- 
purities of Coals; Coal Washing; Sampling and Valuation of 
Coals, etc.; Chlorific Power of Fuels; History of Coke Man- 
ufacture; Developments in Coke Oven Design; Recent Types 
of Coke Ovens; Mechanical Appliances at Coke Ovens; Chem- 
ical and Physical Examination of Coke. Volume II covers 
By-products. Each volume is fully illustrated, with folding 
plates. Price, $3.00 per volume 

COMPRESSED AIR 
Compressed Air in All Its Applications. 

By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is the most complete book on 
the subject of air that has ever been issued, and its thirty-five 
chapters include about every phase of the subject one can 
think of. It may be called an encyclopedia of compressed 
air. It is written by an expert, who, in its 665 pages, has 
dealt with the subject in a comprehensive manner, no phase 
of it being omitted. Over 500 illustrations. Fifth Edition, 
revised and enlarged. Cloth bound. Price, $6.00 

10 



CONCRETE 
Concrete Wall Forms. 

By A. A. Houghton. A new automatic wall clamp, is illus- 
trated with working drawings. Other types of wall forms, 
clamps, separators, etc., are also illustrated and explained. 

Price, 75 cents 

Concrete Floors and Sidewalks. 

By A. A. Houghton. The molds for molding squares, hex- 
agonal and many other styles of mosaic floor and sidewalk 
blocks are fully illustrated and explained. 

Price, 75 cents 

Practical Concrete Silo Construction. 

By A. A. Houghton. Complete working drawings and speci- 
fications are given for several styles of concrete silos, with 
illustrations of molds for monolithic and block silos. The 
tables, data, and information presented in this book are of 
the utmost value in planning and constructing all forms 
of concrete silos. Price, 75 cents 

Molding Concrete Bath Tubs, Aquariums and 
Natatoriums. 

By A. A. Houghton. Simple molds and instruction are 
given for molding different styles of concrete bath tubs, 
6wimming pools, etc. Price, 75 cents 

Molding Concrete Chimneys, Slate and Roof 
Tiles. 

By A. A. Houghton. _ The manufacture of all types of con- 
crete slate and roof tile is fully treated. Valuable data on 
all forms of reinforced concrete roofs are contained within 
its pages. The construction of concrete chimneys by block 
and monolithic systems is fully illustrated and described. 
A number of ornamental designs of chimney construction 
with molds are shown in this valuable treatise. 

Price, 75 cents 

Molding and Curing Ornamental Concrete. 

By A. A. Houghton. The proper proportions of cement 
and aggregates for various finishes, also the methods of thor- 
oughly mixing and placing in the molds, are fully treated. 
An exhaustive treatise on this subject that every concrete 
worker will find of daily use and value. Price, 75 cents 

Concrete Monuments, Mausoleums and Burial 
Vaults. 

By A. A. Houghton. The molding of concrete monuments 
to imitate the most expensive cut stone is explained in this 
treatise, with working drawings of easily built molds. Cut- 
ting inscriptions and designs is also fully treated. 

Price, 75 cents 

Concrete Bridges, Culverts and Sewers. 

By A. A. Houghton. A number of ornamental concrete 
bridges with illustrations of molds are given. A collapsible 
center of core for bridges, culverts and sewers is fully illus- 
trated with detailed instructions for building. 

Price, 75 cents 

11 



Constructing Concrete Porches. 

By A. A. Houghton. A number of designs with working 
drawings of molds are fully explained so any one can easily 
construct different styles of ornamental concrete porches 
without the purchase of expensive molds. 

Price, 75 cents 

Molding Concrete Flower Pots, Boxes, Jardi- 
nieres, Etc. 

By A. A. Houghton. The molds for producing many origi- 
nal designs of flower pots, urns, flower boxes, jardinieres, 
etc., are fully illustrated and explained, so the worker can 
easily construct and operate same. Price, 75 cents 

Molding Concrete Fountains and Lawn Orna- 
ments. 

By A. A. Houghton. The molding of a number of designs 
of lawn seats, curbing, hitching posts, pergolas, sun dials and 
other forms of orgamental concrete, for the ornamentation 
of lawns and gardens, is fully illustrated and described. 

Price, 75 cents 

Concrete on the Farm and in the Shop. 

By H. Colvin Campbell. Among the subjects treated are: 
Principles of reinforcing; methods of protecting concrete so 
as to insure proper hardening; home-made mixers; mixing 
by hand and machine; form construction, described and 
illustrated by drawings and photographs; construction of 
concrete walls and fences; concrete fence posts; concrete 
gate posts; corner posts; clothes line posts; grape arbor 
posts; tanks; troughs; cisterns; hog wallows; feeding floors 
and barnyard pavements; foundations; well curbs and plat- 
forms; indoor floors; sidewalks; steps; concrete hotbeds and 
cold frames; concrete slab roofs; walls for buildings; repair- 
ing leaks in tanks and cisterns; and all topics associated with 
these subjects as bearing upon securing the best results from 
concrete are dwelt upon at sufficient length in plain every-day 
English so that the inexperienced person desiring to _ under- 
take a piece of concrete construction can, by following the 
directions set forth in this book, secure 100 per cent success 
every time. 150 pages, 51 illustrations. Price, $1.00 

Concrete From Sand Molds. 

By A. A. Houghton. A practical work treating on a proc- 
ess which has heretofore been held as a trade secret by the 
few who possessed it, and which will successfully mold every 
and any class of ornamental concrete work. The process 
of molding concrete with sand molds is of the utmost practi- 
cal value, possessing the manifold advantages of a low cost 
of molds, the ease and rapidity of operation, perfect details 
to all ornamental designs, density and increased strength 
of the concrete, perfect curing of the work without attention 
and the easy removal of the molds regardless of any under- 
cutting the design may have. 192 pages. Fullv illustrated. 
Cloth. Price, $2.00 

12 



Ornamental Concrete Without Molds. 

By A. A. Houghton. The process for making ornamental 
concrete without molds has long been held as a secret; and 
now, for the first time, this process is given to the public. 
The book reveals the secret and is the only book published 
which explains a simple, practical method whereby the con- 
crete worker is enabled, by employing wood and metal tem- 
plates of different designs, to mold or model in concrete 
any cornice, archivolt, column, pedestal, base cap, urn or 
pier in a monolithic form — right upon the job. These may 
be molded in units or blocks, and then built_ up to suit the 
specifications demanded. This work is fully illustrated, with 
detailed engravings. Cloth. Price, $2.00 

Popular Handbook for Cement and Concrete 
Users. 

By Myron H. Lewis. Everything of value to the concrete 
user is contained, including kinds of cement employed in 
construction, concrete architecture, inspection and testing, 
waterproofing, coloring and painting, rules tables, working 
and cost data. The book comprises thirty-three chapters. A 
valuable addition to the library of every cement and concrete 
user. Cloth, 430 pages, 126 illustrations. Price, $3.00 

Waterproofing Concrete. 

By Myron H. Lewis. Modern methods of waterproofing 
concrete and other structures. A condensed statement of the 
principles, rules and precautions to be observed in water- 
proofing and damp-proofing structures and structural mate- 
rials. Paper binding. Illustrated. Second Edition. 

Price, 75 cents 



DIES— METAL WORK 

c 1 

Dies; Their Construction and Use for the Modern 
Working of Sheet Metals. 

By J. V. Woodworth. A new book by a practical man, for 
those who wish to know the latest practice in the working 
of sheet metals. It shows how dies are designed, made and 
used, and those who are engaged in this line of work can 
secure many valuable suggestions. Sixth revised edition. 
525 Illustrations, 394 pages. Cloth. Price, $3.50 

Punches, Dies and Tools for Manufacturing in 
Presses. 

By J. V. Woodworth. An encyclopedia of die-making, 
punch-making, die-sinking, sheet-metal working, and making 
of special tools, subpresses, devices and mechanical combina- 
tions for punching, cutting, bending, forming, piercing, draw- 
ing,, compressing, and assembling sheet-metal parts and also 
articles of other materials in machine tools. This is a dis- 
tinct work from the author's book entitled "Dies; Their 
Construction and Use." 500 pages, 700 engravings. Second 
edition. Cloth. Price, $4.50 

13 



DICTIONARIES 



Standard Electrical Dictionary. 

By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. Just issued an entirely new- 
edition brought up to date and greatly enlarged — as a refer- 
ence book this work is beyond comparison, as it contains 
over 700 pages, nearly 500 illustrations, and definitions of 
about 6,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The defini- 
tions are terse and concise and include every term used in 
electrical science. 767 pages, 477 illustrations. (See page 
19 for fuller description.) Price, $5.00 

DRAWING— SKETCHING PAPER 
A Course in Mechanical Drawing. 

By Louis Rouillion. The author has written a most prac- 
tical book on the subject of Mechanical Drafting. It fully 
explains the art of Drawing, Lettering and Dimensioning. 
It is, by far, the most practical book ever published on 
this subject, for use in day and evening schools, and more 
especially adapted for the teacher and for self instruction. 
Fifteenth edition, revised and enlarged. Fully illustrated. 
Oblong. Price, $1.50 

Linear Perspective Self-Taught. 

By Herman T. C. Kraus. This work gives the theory and 
practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural engi- 
neering and mechanical drawings. The arrangement of 
the book is good; the plate is on the left hand, while the 
descriptive text follows on the opposite page, so as to be 
readily referred to. A self-explanatory linear perspective 
chart is included in the second revised edition. Cloth. 

Price, $3.00 

Self-Taught Mechanical Drawing and Elementary 
Machine Design. 

By F. L. Sylvester, M.E., Draftsman, with additions by 
Erik Oberg, associate editor of "Machinery." A practical 
elementary treatise on Mechanical Drawing and Machine De- 
sign, comprising the first principles of geometric and mechan- 
ical drawing, workshop mathematics, mechanics, strength of 
materials, and the calculation and design of machine details, 
compiled for the use of practical mechanics and young drafts- 
men. 330 pages, 215 engravings. Cloth. Price, $2.50 

A New Sketching Paper. 

A new specially ruled paper to enable you to make sketches 
or drawings in isometric perspective without any figuring or 
fussing. It is being used for shop details as well as for 
assembly drawings, as it makes one sketch do the work of 
three, and no workman can help seeing just what is wanted. 
In three sizes of pads. Pads of 40 sheets, 6x9 inches, 
Price, 40c; 9 x 12 inches, Price, 75c; 12 by 18 inches, 
Price, $1.50. 

14 



Practical Perspective. 

By Richards and Colvin. _ Shows just how to make all kinds 
of mechanical drawings in the only practical perspective 
isometric. . Makes everything plain so that any mechanic can 
understand a sketch or drawing in this way. Saves time in 
the drawing room and mistakes in the shops. Contains prac- 
tical examples of various classes of work. Third edition. 
Limp cloth. Price, 75 cents 



ELECTRICITY 



Arithmetic of Electricity. 

By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. A practical treatise on elec- 
trical calculations of all kinds reduced to a series of rules, 
all of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arith- 
metic; each rule illustrated by one or more practical problems 
with detailed solution of each one. This book is classed 
among the most useful works published on the science of 
electricity, covering as it does the mathematics of electricity 
in a manner that will attract the attention of those who are 
not familiar with algebraical formulas. 200 pages. New 
Revised and Enlarged Edition. Price, $1.50 

Commutator Construction. 

By William Baxter, Jr. The business end of dynamo or 
motor of the direct-current type is the commutator. This 
book goes into the designing, building and maintenance of 
commutators, shows how to locate troubles and how to remedy 
them; everyone who fusses with dynamos needs this. Fourth 
edition. Price, 35 cents 

Construction of a Transatlantic Wireless Receiv- 
ing Set. 

By L. G. Pacent and T. S. Curtis. A work for the Radio 
student who desires to construct and operate apparatus that 
will permit of the reception of messages from the large 
stations in Europe with an aerial of amateur proportions. 
36 pages. 23 illustrations. Cloth. Price, 35 cents 



Dynamo Building for Amateurs, or How to Con- 
struct a Fifty Watt Dynamo. 

By Arthur J. Weed. A practical treatise showing in detail 
the construction of a small dynamo or motor, the entire 
machine work of which can be done on a small foot lathe. 
Dimensioned working drawings are given for each piece of 
machine work, and each operation is clearly described. This 
machine, when used as a dynamo, has an output of fifty 
watts; when used as a motor it will drive a small drill press 
or lathe. It can Tie used to drive a sewing machine on any 
and all ordinary work. The book is illustrated with more 
than sixty original engravings showing the actual construction 
of the different parts. Price, $1.00 

15 



Design Data for Radio Transmitters and Re- 
ceivers. 

By B. M. Sleeper. Far from being a collection of formulas, 
Design Data takes up in proper sequence the problems en- 
countered in planning all types of receiving sets for short, 
medium and long wave work, and spark coil, transformer 
and vacuum tube transmitters operating on 200 meters. 
Tables have been worked out so that values can be found 
without the use of mathematics. Radio experimenters will 
find here information which will enable them to have the 
most modern and efficient equipment. Price, 75 cents 



Dynamos and Electric Motors and All About 

Them. 

By Edward Trevert. This volume gives practical directions 
for building a two H. P. Dynamo of the Edison type capable 
of lighting about fifty mazda lamps of the 20-watt size. In 
addition, it gives directions for building two small electric 
motors suitable for running sewing machines. The conclud- 
ing chapter describes the construction of a simple bichromate 
battery adapted for running electric motors. 96 pages. Fully 
illustrated with detail drawings. Cloth, Price, $1.00 



Electric Bells. 

By M. B. Sleeper. A complete treatise for the practical 
worker in installing, operating and testing bell circuits, 
burglar alarms, thermostats and other apparatus used with 
electric bells. Both the electrician and the experimenter will 
find in this book new material which is essential in their 
work. Tools, bells, batteries, unusual circuits, burglar alarms, 
annunciators, systems, thermostats, > circuit breakers, time 
alarms, and other apparatus used in bell circuits are de- 
scribed from the standpoints of their application, construc- 
tion, and repair. The detailed instructions for building the 
apparatus will appeal to the experimenter particularly. The 
practical worker will find the chapters on Wiring Calculation 
of Wire Sizes and Magnet Windings, Upkeep of Systems 
and the Location of Faults of the greatest value in their 
work. 124 pages. Fully illustrated. Price, 75 cents 



Experimental High Frequency Apparatus, How 
to Make and Use It. 

By Thomas Stanley Curtis. This book tells you how to 
build simply high-frequency coils for experimental purposes 
in the home, school laboratory, or on the small lecture plat- 
form. The book is really a supplement to the same author's 
•'High Frequency Apparatus." # The experimental side only 
is covered in this volume, which is intended for those who 
want to build small coils giving up to an eighteen-inch spark. 
The apparatus is simple, cheap and perfectly safe, and with 
it some truly startling experiments may be performed. 69 
pages, illustrated. Price, 50 cents 

16 



Electrician's Handy Book. 

By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. This work has just been 
revised and much enlarged. It is intended for the practical 
electrician who has to make things go. The entire field of 
electricity is covered within its pages. It is a work of the 
most modern practice, written in a clear, comprehensive 
manner, and covers the subject thoroughly, beginning at the 
A B C of the subject, and gradually takes you to the more 
advanced branches of the science. It teaches you just what 
you should know about electricity. A practical work for the 
practical man. Contains forty-eight chapters. 

The publishers consider themselves fortunate in having 
secured the services of such a well and favorably known 
writer as Prof. Sloane, who has with the greatest care com- 
pleted a master work in concise form on this all-important 
subject. 600 engravings, 824 pages, handsomely bound in 
cloth. New Revised Edition. Price, $4.00 



Electricity Simplified. 

By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. The object of "Electricity 
Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and 
to show what the modern conception of electricity is; to 
show how two plates of different metals immersed in acid 
can send a message around the globe; to explain how a 
bundle of copper wire rotated by a steam engine can be the 
agent in lighting our streets; to tell what the volt, ohm and 
ampere are, and what high and low tension mean; and to 
answer the questions that perpetually arise in the mind in 
this age of electricity. 218 pages. Illustrated. Fifteenth 
edition. Price, $1.50 



Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards. 

By Newton Harrison, with additions by Thomas Poppe. 
This is the only complete work issued showing and telling 
you what you should know about direct and alternating cur- 
rent wiring. The work is free from advanced technicalities 
and mathematics, arithmetic being used throughout. It is in 
every respect a handy, well-written, instructive, comprehen- 
sive volume on wiring for the wireman, foreman, contractor 
or electrician. Third revised edition. 315 pages, 130 illus- 
trations. Price, $2.50 



Experimental Wireless Stations. 

By P. E. Edelman. The theory, design, construction and 
operation is fully treated, including Wireless Telephony, 
Vacuum Tube, and quenched spark systems. The new en- 
larged 1920 edition is just issued and is strictly up to date, 
correct and complete. This book tells how to make apparatus 
to not only hear all telephoned radio messages, but also how 
to make simple equipment that works for transmission over 
reasonably long distances. Then there is a host of new in- 
formation included. The first and only book to give you 
all the recent important radio improvements, some of which 
have never before been published. 392 pages. 24 chapters. 
167 illustrations. Price, $3.00 

17 



Electric Toy Making, Dynamo Building and 
Electric Motor Construction. 

This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, 
electrical apparatus, motors, dynamos and instruments in, 
general and is designed to bring within the reach of young 
and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical 
appliances. 210 pages, cloth. Fully illustrated. Twentieth 
edition, enlarged. Price, $1.50 



High Frequency Apparatus, Its Construction and 
Practical Application. 

By Thomas Stanley Curtis. The most comprehensive and 
thorough work on this interesting subject ever produced. 
The book is essentially practical in its treatment and it con- 
stitutes an accurate record of the researches of its author 
over a period of several years, during which "time dozens of 
coils were built and experimented with. New revised and 
enlarged edition. Fully illustrated. 269 pages. 

Price, $3.00 

House Wiring. 

By Thomas W. Poppe. Describing and illustrating up-to-date 
methods of installing electric light wiring. Contains just the 
information needed for successful wiring of a building/ Fully 
illustrated with diagrams and plans. It solves all wiring 
problems and contains nothing that conflicts with the rulings, 
of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 1920 edition, 
revised and enlarged. Including Direct Current Motor Con- 
nections — Diagrams of series wound motor — and Motor Wir- 
ing. 200 pages, fully illustrated, flexible cloth. 

Price, $1.00 



How to Become a Successful Electrician. 

By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. An interesting book fronr 
cover to cover. Telling in simplest language the surest and 
easiest way to become a successful electrician. The studies • 
to be followed, methods of work, field of operation and thd 
requirements of the successful electrician are pointed out and 
fully explained. 202 pages. Illustrated. Eighteenth revised 
edition. Cloth. Price, $1.50 



Radio Time Signal Receiver. 

By Austin C. Lescarboura. This new book, "A Radio Time' 
Signal Receiver," tells you how to build a simple outfit de- 
signed expressly for the beginner. You can build the out- 
fits in your own workshop and install them for jewelers 
either on a one-payment or a rental basis. The apparatus 
is of such simple design that it may be made by the average 
amateur mechanic possessing a few ordinary tools. 42 pages. 1 
Paper. Price, 35 cents 

18 



Radio Hook-Ups. 

In this book the best circuits for different instruments and 
various purposes have been carefully selected and grouped 
together. All the best circuits for damped and undamped 
wave receiving sets, buzzer, spark coil and transformer send- 
ing equipment, as well as vacuum tube telegraph and tele- 
phone transmitters, wavemeters, vacuum tube measuring in- 
struments, audibility meters, etc., are shown in this book. 

A Price, 75 cents 



Standard Electrical Dictionary. 

By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. Just issued an entirely new 
edition brought up to date and greatly enlarged — as a refer- 
ence book this work is beyond comparison, as it contains 
over 700 pages, nearly 500 illustrations, and definitions of 
about 6,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The defini- 
tions are terse and concise and include every term used in 
electrical science. 

In its arrangement and typography the book is very con- 
venient. The word or term defined is printed in black faced 
type which readily catches the eye, while the body of the 
page is in smaller but distinct type. The definitions are well 
worded, and so as to be understood by the non-technical 
reader. The general plan is to give an exact, concise defini- 
tion, and then amplify and explain in a more popular way. 
Synonyms are also given, and references to other words and 
phrases are made. This work is absolutely indispensable to 
all in any way interested in electrical science, from the 
higher electrical expert to the everyday electrical workman. 
In fact, it should be in the possession of all who desire to 
keep abreast with the progress of this branch of science. 
New enlarged edition. 767 pages. 477 illustrations. 

Price, $5.00 



Storage Batteries Simplified. 

By Victor W. Page, M.S.A.E. This is the most thorough 
and authoritative treatise ever published on this subject. It 
is written in easily understandable, non-technical language so 
that anyone may grasp the basic principles of storage _ bat- 
tery action as well as their practical industrial applications. 
All electric and gasoline automobiles use storage batteries. 
Every automobile repairman, dealer or salesman should have 
a good knowledge of maintenance and repair of these im- 
portant elements of the motor car mechanism. This book 
not only tells how to charge, care for and rebuild storage 
batteries but also outlines all the industrial uses. Learn 
how they run street cars, locomotives and factory trucks. 
Get an understanding of the important functions they per- 
form in submarine boats, isolated lighting ( plants, railway 
switch and signal systems, marine applications, etc. This 
book tells how they are used in central station standby serv- 
ice, for starting automobile motors and in ignition systems. 
Every practical use of the modern storage battery is out- 
lined in this treatise. 208 pages, fully illustrated. 

Price, $2.00 

1? 



Telephone Construction, Installation, Wiring, 
Operation and Maintenance. 

By W. H. Radcliffe and H. C. Cushing. This book gives 
the principles of construction and operation of both the 
Bell and Independent instruments; approved methods of 
installing and wiring them; the means of protecting them 
from lightning and abnormal currents; their connection to- 
gether for operation as series or bridging stations; and rules 
for their inspection and maintenance. Line wiring and the 
wiring and operation of special telephone systems are also 
treated. 224 pages, 132 illustrations. Second revised edition. 

Price, $1.50 



Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony Simply Ex- 
plained. 

By Alfred P. Morgan. This is undoubtedly one of the 
most complete and comprehensive treatises on the subject 
ever published, and a close study of its pages will enable 
one to master all the details of the wireless transmission of 
messages. The author has filled a long-felt want and has 
succeeded in furnishing a lucid, comprehensible explanation 
in simple language of the theory and practice of wireless 
telegraphy and telephony. Fourth edition. 154 pages, 156 
engravings. Price, $1.50 



Wiring a House. 

By Herbert Pratt. Shows a house already built; tells just 
how to start about wiring it; where to begin; what wire to 
use; how to run it according to insurance rules; in fact, just 
the information you need. Directions apply equally to a 
shop. Fourth edition. Price, 35 cents 



ELECTROPLATING 

The Modern Electroplater. 

By Kenneth M. Coggeshall. This is the most complete and 
practical book on electroplating and allied processes that has 
been published as a text for the student or professional 
plater. It is written in simple language and explains all 
details of electroplating in a concise yet complete manner. 
Full instructions are given for the preparation and finishing 
of the work and formulae and complete directions are in- 
cluded for making all kinds of plating solutions, many of 
these having been trade secrets until published in this in- 
struction manual. Anyone interested in practical plating and 
metal finishing will find this book a valuable guide and com- 
plete manual of the art. 142 illustrations. 276 pages. 

Price, $3.00 

20 



GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES 



Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines. 

By Gardner D. Hiscox. Revised by Victor W. Page. Every 
user of a gas engine needs this book. Simple, instructive and 
right up to date. The only complete work on the subject. 
Tells all about internal combustion engineering, treating ex- 
haustively on the design, construction and practical applica- 
tion of all forms of gas, gasoline, kerosene and crude pe- 
troleum-oil engines. Describes minutely all auxiliary systems, 
such as lubrication, carburetion and ignition. Considers the 
theory and management of all forms of explosive motors for 
stationary and marine work, automobiles, aeroplanes and 
motorcycles. Includes also Producer Gas and Its Production. 
Invaluable instructions for all students, gas-engme owners, 
gas-engineers, patent experts, designers, mechanics, drafts- 
men and all having to do with the modern power. Illustrated 
by over 400 engravings, many specially made from engineer- 
ing drawings, all in correct proportion. 640 octavo pages 
and 435 engravings. Price, $3.00 



Gasoline Engines : Their Operation, Use and Care. 

By A. Hyatt Verrill. A comprehensive, simple and prac- 
tical work, treating of gasoline engines for stationary, marine 
or vehicle use; their construction, design, management, care, 
operation, repair, installation and troubles. A complete glos- 
sary of technical terms and an alphabetically arranged table 
of troubles and symptoms form a most valuable and unique 
feature of the book. b]/ A x 7y 2 . Cloth. 275 pages, 152 illus- 
trations. Price, $2.00 



Gas Engine Construction. 

Or How to Build a Half-Horse-power Gas Engine. By 
Parsell and Weed. A practical treatise describing the theory 
and principles of the action of gas engines of various types, 
and the design and construction of a half -horse-power gas 
engine, with illustrations of the work in actual progress, 
together with dimensioned working drawings giving clearly 
the sizes of the various details. 300 pages. Third edition. 
Cloth. Price, $3.00 



The Gasoline Engine on the Farm: Its Operation, 
Repair and Uses. 

By Xeno W. Putnam. A useful and practical treatise on 
the modern gasoline and kerosene engine, its construction, 
management, repair and the many uses to which it can be 
applied in present-day farm life. It considers all the various 
household, shop and field uses of this up-to-date motor and 
includes chapters on engine installation, power transmission 
and the best arrangement of the power plant in reference 
to the work. SJ4 x 7/4. Cloth. 527 pages, 179 illustra- 
tions. Price, $3.00 

21 



How to Run and Install Two- and Four- Cycle 
Marine, Gasoline Engines. 

By C. Von Culin. The object of this little book is to fur- 
nish a pocket instructor for the beginner, the busy man who 
uses an engine for pleasure or profit, but who does not have 
the time or inclination for a technical book, but simply to 
thoroughly understand how to properly operate, install and 
care for his own engine. Pocket size. Paper binding. 

Price, 25 cents 



GEARING AND CAMS 



Bevel Gear Tables. 

By D. Ag. Engstrom. No one who has to do with bevel 
gears in any way should be without this book. The designer 
and draftsman will find it a great convenience, while to the 
machinist who turns up the blanks or cuts the teeth it is 
invaluable, as all needed dimensions are given and no fancy 
figuring need be done. Third edition. Cloth. Price, $1.50 



Change Gear Devices. 

By Oscar E. Perrigo. A book for every designer, draftsman 
and mechanic who is interested in feed changes for any kind 
of machines. This shows what has been done and how. 
Gives plans, patents and all information that you need. Saves 
hunting through patent records and reinventing old ideas. A 
standard work of reference. Third edition. Price, $1.50 



Drafting of Cams. 

By Louis Rouillion. The laying out of cams is a serious 
problem unless you know how to go at it right. This puts 
you on the right road for practically any kind of cam you 
are likely to run up against. Third edition. 

Price, 35 cents 



HYDRAULICS 

Hydraulic Engineering. 

By Gardner D. Hiscox. A treatise on the properties, power, 
and resources of water for all purposes. Including the meas- 
urements of streams; the flow of water in pipes or conduits; 
the horse-power of falling water; turbine and impact water- 
wheels; wave-motors, centrifugal, reciprocating and air-lift 
pumos. With 300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical 
tables. 320 pages. Price, $4.50 

22 



ICE AND REFRIGERATION 

Pocketbook of Refrigeration and Ice Making. 

By A. J. Wallis-Taylor. This is one of the latest and 
most comprehensive reference books published on the subject 
of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties 
and refrigerating effect of the different fluids in use, the 
management of refrigerating machinery and the construction 
and insulation of cold rooms with their required pipe surface 
for different degrees of cold; freezing mixtures and non- 
freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all kinds of 
provisions, cold storage charges for all classes of goods, ice 
making and storage of ice, data and memoranda for constant 
reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one hundred 
tables containing valuable references to every fact and con- 
dition required in the installment and operation of a refriger- 
ating plant. New edition just published. Price, $2.00 



INVENTION— PATENTS 



Inventor's Manual, How to Make a Patent Pay. 

This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting 
their inventions, taking out their patents, and disposing of 
them. It is not in any sense a Patent Solicitor's circular nor 
a Patent Broker's advertisement. No advertisements of any 
description appear in the work. It is a book containing a 
quarter of a century's experience of a successful inventor, 
together with notes based upon the experience of many other 
inventors. Revised and enlarged second edition. Nearly 150 
pages. Illustrated. Price, SI. 50 



KNOTS 



Knots, Splices and Rope Work. 

By A. Hyatt Verrill. This is a practical book giving com- 
plete and simple directions for making all the most useful 
and ornamental knots in common use, with chapters on 
Splicing, Pointing, Seizing, Serving, etc. This book is fully 
illustrated with 154 original engravings, which show how 
each knot, tie or splice is formed, and its appearance when 
finished. The book will be found of the greatest value to 
campers, yachtsmen, travelers or Boy Scouts; in fact, to 
anyone having occasion to use or handle rope or knots for 
any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and practical, 
and is not only a guide but a teacher. _ It is the standard 
•work on the subject. Second edition revised. 104 pages, 154 
original engravings. Price, $1.00 

23 



LATHE WORK 



Lathe Work for Beginners. 

By Raymond F. Yates. A book for those interested in 
lathe work which opens up a new world for the amateur 
worker in wood and metal. It will prove a valuable aid 
also to the young machinist or apprentice who intends to 
make lathe work his occupation. It foresees all his questions, 
and its answers go straight to the heart of his difficulty. 
This book shows the reader how to set up his lathe, explains 
the various tools and the correct way of using them, and 
makes plain the different lathe attachments and their 
applications. The lessons range from the turning of a brass 
cup to the completion of a model rapid-fire gun, and milling, 
gear-cutting, thread-cutting, sawing and grinding are set forth 
with refreshing simplicity. Among the chapters contained 
are: I Choosing a Lathe. II Setting up and Driving the 
Lathe. Ill The Lathe and Its Parts. IV Lathe Attach- 
ments and Their Use. V Measuring Tools and Their Use. 
VI A Lesson in Metal Turning. VII Advanced Lathe 
Work. VIII Screw Cutting. IX Wood Turning. X Metal 
Spinning. XI Building an Amateurs Metal Turning Lathe. 
XII Building a Simple Wood Turning Lathe. XIII A 
Model Rapid-Fire Naval Gun. 167 illustrations. $2.50 

The Lathe — Its Design, Construction and Opera- 
tion, With Practical Examples of Lathe Work. 

By Oscar E. Perrigo. A new revised edition, and the only 
complete # American work on the subject. _ Lathe history and 
the relations of the lathe to manufacturing are given; also 
a description of the various devices for feeds and thread 
cutting mechanisms from early efforts in this direction to the 
present time. _ Lathe design is thoroughly discussed, includ- 
ing back gearing, driving cones, thread-cutting gears, and all 
the essential elements of the modern lathe. The classification 
of lathes is taken up, giving the essential differences of the 
several types of lathes, including, as is usually understood, 
engine lathes, bench lathes, speed lathes, forge lathes, gap 
lathes, pulley lathes, forming lathes, multiple-spindle lathes, 
rapid-reduction lathes, precision lathes, turret lathes, special 
lathes, electrically-driven lathes, etc. In addition to the com- 
plete exposition on construction and design, much practical 
matter on lathe installation,, care and operation has been in- 
corporated in the enlarged new edition. All kinds of lathe 
attachments for drilling, milling, etc., are described and 
complete instructions are given to enable the novice ma- 
chinist to grasp the art of lathe operation as well as the 
principles involved in design. A number of difficult machin- 
ing operations are described at length and illustrated. The 
new edition has 469 pages and 341 illustrations. 

Price, $3.00 

Turning and Boring Tapers. 

By Fred H. Colvin. There are two ways to turn tapers: 
the right way and one other. This treatise has to do with 
the right way; it tells you how to start the work properly, 
how to set the lathe, what tools to use and how to use them, 
and forty and one other little things that you should follow. 
Fourth edition. Price, 35 ce»»*« 

24 



LIQUID AIR 

Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases. 

By T. O'Conor Sloane. The third revised edition of this 
book has just been issued. Much new material is added to 
it; and the all important uses of liquid air and gas processes 
in modern industry, in the production especially of nitrogen 
compounds, are described. The book gives the history of the 
theory, discovery and manufacture of Liquid Air, and con- 
tains an illustrated description of all the experiments that 
have excited the wonder of audiences all over the country. 
It shows how liquid air, like water, is carried hundreds of 
miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be 
expected from it in the near future. A book that renders 
simple one of the most perplexing chemical problems of the 
century. Startling developments illustrated by actual experi- 
ments. It is not _ only a work of scientific interest and 
authority, but is intended for the general reader, being 
written in a popular style — easily understood by everyone. 
394 pages, fully illustrated. New Edition. Price, $3.0O 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 



Air-Brake Catechism. 

By Robert H. Blackall. This book is a standard text book. 
It is the only practical and complete work published. Treats 
on the equipment manufactured by the Westinghouse Air 
Brake Company, including the E-T Locomotive Brake Equip- 
ment, the K (Quick Service) Triple Valve for freight serv- 
ice; the L High Speed Triple Valve; the P-C Passenger 
Brake Equipment, and the Cross Compound Pump. The 
operation of all parts of the apparatus is explained in detail 
and a practical way of locating their peculiarities and rem- 
edying their defects is given. Endorsed and used by air- 
brake instructors and examiners on nearly every railroad 
in the United States. Twenty-seventh edition. 411 pages, 
fully illustrated with folding plates and diagrams. New 
edition. Price, $2.50 

Westinghouse E. T. Air-Brake Instruction Pock- 
etbook Catechism. 

By Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. A practical work 
containing examination questions and answers on the E. T. 
Equipment. Covering what the E. T. Brake is. How it 
should be operated. What to do when defective. Not a 
question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion 
on either the No. 5 or the No. 6 E. T. equipment that is not 
asked and answered in the book. If you want to thoroughly 
understand the E. T. equipment get a copy of this book. It 
covers every detail. Makes lir-brake troubles and examina- 
tions easy. Fully illustrated with colored plates, showing 
various pressures. Some of these plates are printed in 16 
different colors. This is the standard Book on the E. T. 
Air-Brake. Cloth. Revised and enlarged edition. $2.50 

25 



Link Motions, Valves and Valve Setting. 

By Fred H. Colvin, Associate Editor of "American Ma- 
chinist." A handy book that clears up the mysteries of valve 
setting. Shows the different valve gears in use, how they 
work, and why. Piston and slide valves of different types 
are illustrated and explained. A book that every railroad 
man in the motive-power department ought to have. Fully 
illustrated. New revised edition recently published. 

Price, 75 cents 

Train Rule Examinations Made Easy. 

By G. E. Collingwood. This is the only practical work on 
train rules in print. Every detail is covered, and puzzling 
points are explained in simple, comprehensive language, 
making it a practical treatise for the train dispatcher, en- 
gineman, train man and all others who have to do with the 
movements of trains. Contains complete and reliable infor- 
mation of the Standard Code of Train Rules for single track. 
Shows signals in colors, as used on the different roads. Ex- 
plains fully the practical application of train orders, giving 
a clear and definite understanding of all orders which may 
be used. Second edition revised. 234 pages. Fully illus- 
trated, with train signals in colors. Price, $1.50 

Locomotive Breakdowns and Their Remedies. 

By Geo. L. Fowler. Revised by Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake 
Instructor. Pocket edition. It is out of the question, to try 
.and tell you about every subject that is covered in this 
pocket edition of Locomotive Breakdowns. Just imagine all 
the common troubles that an engineer may expect to happen 
some time, and then add all of the unexpected ones, troubles 
that could occur, but that you had never thought about, and 
you will find that they are all treated with the very best 
methods of repair. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear 
Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions 
and Answers on the Air Brake, are all included. Eighth 
edition. 294 pages. Fully illustrated. Price, $1.50 

Practical Instructor and Reference Book for 
Locomotive Firemen and Engineers. 

By Chas. F. Lockhart. An entirely new book on the loco- 
motive. It appeals to every railroad man, as it tells him how 
things are done and the right way to do them. Written by 
a man who has had years of practical experience in locomo- 
tive shops and on the road firing and running. The infor- 
mation given in this book cannot be found in any other 
similar treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with 
their answers are included, which will prove specially helpful 
to those preparing for examination. 362 pages, 88 illustra- 
tions. Cloth. Price, $2.50 

Diary of a Round-House Foreman. 

By T. S. Reilly. This is the greatest book of railroad ex- 
periences ever published. Containing a fund of information 
and suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, 
etc., that one cannot afford to miss. 176 pages. $1.25 

26 



Locomotive Boiler Construction. 

By Frank A. Kleinhans. The only book showing how loco- 
motive boilers are built in modern shops. Shows all types of 
boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, 
such as life of riveting punches and dies, work done per 
day, allowance for bending and flanging sheets and other 
data that means dollars to any railroad man. Second edition. 
451 pages, 334 illustrations. Six folding plates. Cloth. 

Price, $3.50 



Prevention of Railroad Accidents, or Safety in 
Railroading. 

By George Bradshaw. This book is a heart-to-heart talk 
with railroad employees, dealing with facts, not theories, and 
showing the men in the ranks from every-day experience, 
how accidents occur and how they may be avoided. The 
book is illustrated with seventy original photographs and 
drawings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No 
visionary schemes, no ideal pictures. Just plain facts and 
practical suggestions are given. Every railroad employee 
who reads the book is a better and safer man to have in 
railroad service. It gives just the information which will be 
the means of preventing many injuries and deaths. All 
railroad employees should procure a copy, read it, and do 
their part in preventing accidents. 169 pages. Pocket size. 
Fully illustrated. Price, 50 cents 



Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke. 

By Wm. M. Barr. To be a success a fireman must be "Light 
on Coal." He must keep his fire in good condition, and 
prevent, as far as possible, the smoke nuisance. To do this, 
ne should know how coal burns, how smoke is formed and 
the proper burning of fuel to obtain the best results. He 
can learn this, and more too, from Barr's "Combustion of 
Coal." It is an absolute authority on all questions relating 
to the firing of a locomotive. Fifth edition. Nearly 350 
pages, fully illustrated. Price, $1.50 



Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear. 

By Wm. W. Wood. If you would thoroughly understand 
the Walschaert Valve Gear, you should possess a copy of 
this book. The author divides the subject into four divisions, 
as follows: I. Analysis of the gear. II. Designing and 
erection of the gear. III. Advantages of the gear. IV. 
Questions and answers relating to the Walschaert_ Valve Gear. 
This book is specially valuable to those preparing for pro- 
motion. Third 1920 edition, revised and enlarged. 245 
pages, fully illustrated. Cloth. Price, $2.50 

27 



Locomotive Engine Running and Management. 

By Angus Sinclair, M.E., formerly Editor "Railway and 
Locomotive Engineering." Shows how to manage a loco- 
motive, describes its parts and gives instructions for the 
care, and repairs of locomotives and their connections. 
CONTENTS: — Engineers and Their Duties. How Engineers 
Are Made. Inspection of the Locomotive. Getting Ready 
for the Road. Running a Fast Freight Train. Getting Up 
the Hill. Finishing the Trip. Hard-Steaming Engines. 
Shortness of Water. Boilers and Fireboxes. Accidents. 
Connecting-Rods, Sid«-Rods and Wedges. Valve Motion. 
Setting the Valves. The Westinghouse Air-Brake. Trac- 
tive Power and Train Resistance. Draft Appliances. Com- 
bustion. Steam and Motive-Power. Sight-Feed. Lubri- 
cators. Examination of Firemen for Promotion. Revised 
Twenty-Third Edition, 436 pages, illustrated. Price, $3.00 

Locomotives, Simple, Compound, and Electric* 

By H. C. Reagan, Locomotive Engineer. Describes the 
design, construction, operation, and repair of every type 
of locomotive. Very fully illustrated. 

CONTENTS:— Loeomotive Boiler. Front End. Steam Cyl- 
inders and Connection. Frames, Driving-Boxes, and Spring 
Rigging. Rods and Connections. Valve Gearing. Com- 
pound Locomotive. Indicator-Cards. Superheaters. Injec- 
tors, Brakes and Brake Rigging. Liquid Fuel. Electric 
Locomotives. Apparatus Essential to the Operation of 
Electric Locomotives, Electric Control Systems. Typical 
Electric Engines. Fifth Edition, 932 pages. Price, $3.50- 

Practical Locomotive Running and Management. 

By W. Geo. Knight. A practical book for the railroad man, 
specially helpful to those preparing for examination. The 
new second revised edition of this work deals with the 
principles of locomotive engineering in a practical manner, 
and explains fully and clearly those subjects that are usually 
difficult to understand by men who actually operate and 
maintain locomotives. The book is profusely illustrated and 
includes many reproductions of drawings and models used 
by the author as an instructor for the purposes of making 
clear the principles that underlie the construction and opera- 
tion of the various parts of the locomotive engine. The 
simplicity in which these hard problems are treated has 
made the work very popular. Those preparing for an exam- 
ination for locomotive engineer or fireman will find this 
volume most helpful. 541 Pages, 169 illustrations. 

Price, $4.0O 

MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 

Complete Practical Machinist. 

By Joshua Rose. The new, twentieth revised and enlarged 
edition is now ready. This is one of the best-known books 
on machine-shop work, and written for the practical work- 
man in the language of the workshop. It gives full, practi- 
cal instructions on the use of all kinds of metal-working tools, 
both hand and machine, and tells how the work should be 
properly done. It covers lathe work, vise work, drills and 
drilling, taps and dies, hardening and tempering, the making 
and use of tools, tool grinding, marking out work, machine 
tools, etc. No machinist's library is complete without this 
Volume. 547 pages, 432 illustrations. Price, $3.00 

28 



Abrasives and Abrasive Wheels. 

By Fred B. Jacobs. A new book for everyone interested in 
abrasives or grinding. A careful reading of the book will 
not only make mechanics better able to use abrasives intel- 
ligently, but it will also tell the shop superintendent of many 
short cuts and efficiency-increasing kinks. The economic ad- 
vantage in using large grinding wheels are fully explained, 
together with many other things that will tend to give the 
superintendent or workman a keen insight into abrasive en- 
gineering. 340 pages, 174 illustrations. This is_ an indis- 
pensable book for every machinist. Price, $3.00 

Machine Shop Arithmetic. 

By Colvin-Cheney. Most popular book for shop men. Shows 
how all shop problems are worked out and "why. Includes 
change gears for cutting any threads; drills, taps; metric 
system of measurements and threads. Used by all classes oi 
mechanics and for instruction in Y. M. C. A. and other 
schools. Seventh edition. 131 pages. Price, 75 cents 

"Shop Kinks." ■ £A . 

By Robert Grimshaw. This shows special methods of doing 
work of various kinds, and releasing cost of production. Has 
hints and kinks from some of the largest shops m this coun- 
try and Europe. You are almost sure to find some that apply 
to your work, and in such a way as to save time and trouble. 
393 pages. Fifth edition. Illustrated. Cloth. Price, $3.00 

Home Mechanic's Workshop Companion. 

By Andrew Jackson, Jr. This treatise includes a compila- 
tion of useful suggestions that cannot fail to interest the 
handy man, and while it is not intended for mechanical ex- 
perts or scientists, it will prove to be a veritable store of 
information for anyone who desires to rig up a small shop 
where odd jobs can be carried on. Price, 75 cents 

Threads and Thread Cutting. 

Bv Colvin and Stabel. This clears up many of the mysteries 
of thread cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal 
threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc Contains a lot 
of useful hints and several tables. Third edition. 35 cents 

Shop Practice for Home Mechanics. 

By Raymond Francis Yates. A thoroughly practical and 
helpful book prepared especially for those who have had little 
or no experience in shop work. The introduction is given 
over to an elementary explanation of the fundamentals ot 
mechanical science. This is followed by several chapters on 
the use of small tools and mechanical measuring instruments. 
Elementary and more advanced lathe work is treated in de- 
tail and directions given for the construction of a number 
of useful show appliances. Drilling and reaming, heat treat- 
ment of tool steel, special lathe operations, pattern making, 
grinding, and grinding operations, home foundry work etc., 
make up the rest of the volume. The book omits nothing 
that will be of use to those who use tools or to those who 
wish to learn the use of tools. The great number of clear 
engravings add much to the text matter and to the value of 
the volume as a visual instructor. Size 6x9. 320 pages 
309 engravings. New Edition. ITice, ;t>.5.uu 

29 



THE WHOLE FIELD OF MECHANICAL 

MOVEMENTS IS COVERED BY 

HISCOX'S TWO BOOKS. 



We publish two books by Gardner D. Hiscox that will 
keep you from "inventing" things that have been done be- 
fore and suggest ways of doing things that you have not 
thought of before. Many a man spends time and money 
pondering over some mechanical problem, only to learn, after 
he has solved the problem, that the same thing has been 
accomplished and put in practice by others long before. Time 
and money spent in an effort to accomplish what has al- 
ready been accomplished are time and money lost. The 
whole field of mechanics, every known mechanical movement, 
and practically every device is covered by these two books. 
If the thing you want has been invented, it is illustrated in 
them. If it hasn't been invented, then you'll find in them 
the nearest things to what you want, some movement or 
device that will apply in your case, perhaps; or which will 
give you a key from_ which to work. No book or set of 
books ever published is of more real value to the inventor, 
draftsman or practical mechanic than these two volumes. 
Each book sold separately. 

Mechanical Movements, Powers and Devices. 

By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a collection of 1,890 
engravings of different mechanical motions and appliances, 
accompanied by appropriate text, making it a book of great 
value to the inventor, the draftsman, and to all readers 
with mechanical tastes. The book is divided into eighteen 
sections or chapters, in which the subject-matter is classified 
under the following heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmis- 
sion of Power; Measurement of Power; Steam Power; Air 
Power Appliances; Electric Power and Construction; Navi- 
gation and Roads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Control- 
ling Motion; Horological; Mining; Mill and Factory Appli- 
ances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices; Miscel- 
laneous Devices, etc. Fifteenth edition. 409 octavo pages. 

Price, $4.00 

Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movements 
and Novelties of Construction. 

By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a supplementary volume 
to the one upon mechanical movements. Unlike the -first 
volume, which is more elementary in character, this volume 
contains illustrations and descriptions of many combina- 
tions of motions and of mechanical devices and appliances 
found in different lines of machinery, each device being 
shown by a line drawing with a description showing its 
working parts and the method of operation. _ From the 
multitude of devices described and illustrated might be men- 
tioned, in passing, such items as conveyors and elevators, 
Prony brakes, thermometers, various types of boilers, solar 
engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers, evaporators, Corliss 
and other valve gears, governors, gas engines, water motors 
of various descriptions, air ships, motors and dynamos, 
automobiles and motor bicycles, railway lock signals, car 
couplers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech block 
mechanism for heavy guns, and a large accumulation of 
others of equal importance. 1,000 specially made engravings. 
396 octavo pages. Fourth revised edition. Price, $4.00 

30 



MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 



Modern Machine Shop Construction, Equipment 
and Management. 

By Oscar E. Perrigo. The only work published that describes 
the Modern Machine Shop or Manufacturing Plant from the 
time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the 
finished product is shipped. Just the book needed by those 
contemplating the erection of modern shop buildings, the 
rebuilding and reorganization of old ones or the introduction, 
of Modern Shop Methods, Time and Cost Systems. It is a. 
book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for 
practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and 
want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its- 
kind ever published. Second edition. 384 pages, 219 original 
and specially-made illustrations. Price, $5.00 



Machine Shop Tools and Shop Practice. 

By W. H. Vandervoort. A work of 555 pages and 673 illus- 
trations, describing in every detail the construction, opera- 
tion and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. In- . 
eludes chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on 
drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe and its tools; planers, 
shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; gear 
cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; 
grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering; 
gearing, belting, and transmission machinery; useful data and 
tables. Seventh edition. Cloth. Price, $4.50 



American Tool Making and Interchangeable 
Manufacturing. 

By J. V. Woodworth. In its 500-odd pages the one subject 
only, Tool Making, and whatever relates thereto, is dealt with. 
The work stands without a rival. It is a complete practical 
treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of 
interchangeable manufacturing as carried on to-day in the 
United States. In it are described and illustrated all of the 
different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices 
and special appliances which are in general use in all ma- 
chine-manufacturing and _ metal-working establishments where 
economy, capacity and interchangeability in the production 
of machined metal parts are imperative. The science of jig 
making is exhaustively discussed, and particular attention is 
paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling fixtures and 
other devices in which the parts to be machined are located 
and fastened within the contrivances. All of the tools, fix- 
tures and devices illustrated and described have been or are 
used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill 
presses, lathes, patented machinery, typewriters, electrical ap- 
paratus, mechanical appliances, brass goods, composition parts, 
mold products, sheet metal articles, drop forgings, jewelry, 
watches, medals, coins, etc. Third edition. 535 pages and 
601 specially made engravings. Price, $4.50 

31 



MARINE ENGINEERING 

The Naval Architect's and Shipbuilder's Pocket- 
book. 

of Formulae, Rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer's and 
Surveyor's Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mack- 
row and Lloyd Woollard. The eleventh revised and en- 
larged edition of this most comprehensive work has just been 
issued. It is absolutely indispensable to all engaged in the 
Shipbuilding Industry, as it condenses into a compact form 
all data and formulae that are ordinarily required. The book 
is completely up to date, including among other subjects a 
section on Aeronautics. 750 pages, limp leather binding. 

Price, $6.00 net 

Marine Engines and Boilers, Their Design and 
Construction. The Standard Book. 

By Dr. G. Bauer, Leslie S. Robertson and S. Bryan Don- 
kin. In the words of Dr. Bauer, the present work owes its 
origin to an oft felt want of a condensed treatise embodying 
the theoretical and practical rules used in designing marine 
engines and boilers. The work is clearly written, thoroughly 
systematic, theoretically sound; while the character of the 
plans, drawings, tables and statistics is without reproach. 
The illustrations are careful reproductions from actual work- 
ing drawings, with some well-executed photographic views of 
completed engines and boilers. 744 pages, 550 illustrations, 
and numerous tables. Price, $10.00 net 

MANUAL TRAINING 



Economics of Manual Training. 

By Louis Rouillion. The only book that gives just the in- 
formation needed by all interested in manual training, re- 
garding buildings, equipment and supplies. Shows exactly 
what is needed for all grades of the work from the Kinder- 
garten to the High and Normal School. Gives itemized lists 
of everything needed and tells just what it ought to cost. 
Also shows where to buy supplies. Illustrated. Second 
edition. Cloth. Price, $2.00 

MINING 
Prospector's Field-Book and Guide. 

By H. S. Osborn. New 1920 edition, revised and enlarged 
by M. W. von Bernewitz. The last edition of this volume 
was published in 1910. It and the previous seven editions 
were suitable for those times. The new ninth edition will 
be found suitable for the present time. While the old-time 
prospector "will always be an important factor, the knowledge 
of and search for the common and rarer minerals is bringing 
out men who are trained to some degree. In the field they 
need a handy and suggestive pocket-book containing hints on 
prospecting — where to search and how to test — couched in 
simple terms. 375 pages. 57 illustrations. New edition. 

Price, $3.00 

32 



MODEL MAKING 
Model Making. 

By Raymond Francis Yates. A new book for the mechanic 
and model maker. This is the first book of its kind to be 
published in this country, and all those interested in model 
engineering should have a copy. The first eight chapters are 
devoted to such subjects as Silver Soldering, Heat Treatment 
of Steel, Lathe Work, Pattern Making, Grinding, etc. The 
remaining twenty-four chapters describe the construction of 
various models such as rapid fire naval guns, speed boats, 
model steam engines, turbines, etc. 400 pages. 301 illus- 
trations. Price, $3.00 

MOTOR BOATS 
Motor Boats and Boat Motors. 

By V. W. Page and A. C. Leitch. All who are interested 
in motor boats will rind this latest work a most comprehensive 
treatise on the design, construction, operation and repair of 
motor boats and their power plants. It is really two com- 
plete books in one cover, as it consists of two parts, each 
complete in itself. Part one deals with THE HULL AND 
ITS FITTINGS, part two considers THE POWER PLANT 
AND ITS AUXILIARIES. A valuable feature of this book 
is the complete set of dimensioned working drawings detailing 
the construction of five different types of boats ranging from 
a 16-foot shallow draft, tunnel stern general utility craft to 
a 25-foot cabin cruiser. It is a comprehensive work of ref- 
erence for all interested in motor boating in any of its 
phases. 372 illustrations. 524 pages. New Edition. 

Price, $4.00 



MOTORCYCLES 

=3 

Motorcycles and Side Cars: Their Construction, 
Management and Repair. 

By Victor W. Page. Describes fully all leading types of 
machines, their design, construction, maintenance, operation 
and repair. Shows all new improvements in motorcycle con- 
struction and gives the most complete instructions ever pub- 
lished for starting, driving and repairing all types of motor- 
cycles. There is a complete exposition of modern starting 
methods and a full explanation of the operating principles 
and repair of the new automatic electric lighting systems. 
The care of the generator, storage battery, automatic cut-out 
and other parts is clearly expounded. _ All types of change 
speed gears and clutches are fully outlined, also full instruc- 
tions for their use. A complete new chapter has been added 
on the thorough overhauling and repairing of motorcycle 
engines, all processes are fully described and illustrated. The 
reader is told what parts wear, how to detect depreciation 
and how to make all repairs and adjustments necessary to 
make the engine as good as new. 693 pages, 371 illustra- 
tions. New Revised and Enlarged Edition. Price, $3.00 

33 



PATTERN MAKING 
Practical Pattern Making. 

By F. W. Barrows. This book is a comprehensive and 
entirely practical treatise on the subject of pattern making, 
illustrating pattern work in both wood and metal, and with 
definite instructions on the use of plaster of paris in the 
trade. It gives specific and detailed descriptions of the 
materials used by pattern makers and describes the tools; 
both those for the bench and the more interesting machine 
tools; having complete chapters on the lathe, the circular saw 
and the band saw. It gives many examples of pattern work. 
Nearly 350 pages, 170 illustrations. Third, 1922, edition, 
revised and enlarged. Price, $2.50 

PERFUMERY 



Perfumes and Cosmetics, Their Preparation and 
Manufacture. 

By G. W. Askinson, Perfumer. A comprehensive treatise, 
in which there has been nothing omitted that could be of 
value to the perfumer or manufacturer of toilet preparations. 
Complete directions for making handkerchief perfumes, 
smelling-salts, sachets, fumigating pastils^ preparations for 
the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cosmetics, hair 
dyes and other toilet articles are given, also a detailed 
description of aromatic substances; > their _ nature, tests of 
purity, and wholesale manufacture, including a chapter on 
synthetic products, with formulas for their use. A book of 
general as well as professional interest, meeting the wants 
not only of the druggist and perfume manufacturer, but also 
of the general public. Fourth edition, much enlarged and 
brought up-to-date. 354 pages, illustrated. Price, $5.00 

PLUMBING 



Plumbers, Steam Fitters, and Tinners Reference 
Book. 

By H. G. Richey. This book should be in the hands of all 
connected with the Plumbing or Steam Heating Trades. It 
is a most comprehensive work and written by a man who 
understands the subject thoroughly and who has gathered 
in its pages just such matter as can be turned to when, 
help is needed. Contains 529 pages, fully illustrated, pocket- 
book form. Price, $3.00 

Standard Practical Plumbing. 

By R. M. Starbuck. This is a complete treatise and covers 
the subject of Modern Plumbing in all its branches. It 
treats exhaustively on the skilled work of the plumber and 
the theory underlying plumbing devices and operations. It 
commends itself to anyone working in the plumbing trade. 
A large amount of space is devoted to a practical treatment 
of hot water supply, circulation and range boiler work. 
Another valuable feature is the special chapter on drawing 
for plumbers. The book has 406 pages, including 347 illus- 
trations — 100 of which are full page plates which were made 
expressly for this book and show the most modern American 
practice in plumbing construction. 6J^ X ?%. 

Price, $3.50 

34 



Mechanical Drawing for Plumbers. 

By R. M. Starbuck. A concise, comprehensive and practical 
treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing in its various 
modern applications to the work of all who are in any way 
connected with the plumbing trade. Nothing will so help 
the plumber in estimating and in explaining work to cus- 
tomers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the 
workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his 
position to positions of greater responsibility. 150 illus- 
trations. Price, $2.00 

Modern Plumbing Illustrated. 

By R. M. Starbuck. The author of this book, Mr. R. M. 
Starbuck, is one of the leading authorities on plumbing in 
the United States. The book represents the highest standard 
of plumbing work. A very comprehensive work, illustrating 
and describing the drainage and ventilation of dwellings, 
apartments and public buildings. The very latest and most 
approved methods in all branches of sanitary installation are 
given. The standard book for master plumbers, architects, 
builders, plumbing inspectors, boards of health, boards of 
plumbing examiners and for the property owner, as well 
as the workman and apprentice. It .contains fifty-seven en- 
tirely new and large full pages of illustrations with descrip- 
tive text, all of which have been made specially for this 
work. These plates show all kinds of modern plumbing work. 
Each plate is accompanied by several pages of text, giving 
notes and practical suggestions, sizes of pipe, proper measure- 
ments for setting up work, etc. Suggestions on estimating 
plumbing construction are also included. 407 octavo pages, 
fully illustrated by 58 full-page plates of engravings. 

Price, $5.0O 

RECIPE BOOK 



Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, 
Formulas and Processes. 

Edited by Gardner D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno- 
chemical formulas book published, including over 10,000 se- 
lected scientific, chemical, technological and practical recipes 
and processes. This book of 800 pages is the most complete 
book of recipes ever published, giving thousands of recipes 
for the manufacture of valuable articles for every-day use. 
Hints, helps, practical ideas and secret processes are revealed 
within its pages. It covers every branch of the useful arts 
and tells thousands of ways of making money and is just the 
book everyone should have at his command. The pages are 
filled with matters of intense interest and immeasurable prac- 
tical value to the photographer, the perfumer, the painter 
the manufacturer of glues, pastes, cements and mucilages, 
the physician, the druggist, the electrician, the dentist, the 
engineer, the foundryman, the machinist, the potter, the 
tanner, the confectioner, the chiropodist, the manufacturer 
of chemical novelties and toilet preparations, the dyer, the 
electroplater, the enameler, the engraver, the provisioner, the 
flass worker, the gold-beater, the watchmaker, the jeweler, 
the ink manufacturer, the optician, the farmer, the dairyman, 
the paper maker, the metal worker, the soap maker, the 
veterinary surgeon, and the_ technologist in general. A book 
to which you may turn with confidence that you will find 

35 



•what you are looking for. A mine of information up-to-date 
in every respect." Contains an immense number of formulas 
that every one ought to have that are not found in any other 
work. New 1921 edition. 807 octavo pages. Cloth binding. 

Price, $4.00 

RUBBER 



Rubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of 
India Rubber. 

By T. O'Conor Sloane. This book gives full details of all 
points, treating in a concise and simple manner the elements 
of nearly everything it is necessary to understand for a 
commencement in any branch of the India, rubber manu- 
facture. The making of all kinds of rubber hand stamps, 
small articles of India rubber, U. S. Government compr si- 
tion, dating hand stamps, the manipulation of sheet rubber, 
toy balloons, India rubber solutions, cements, blackings, 
renovating varnish, and treatment for India rubber shoes, 
etc.; the hektograph stamp inks, and miscellaneous notes, 
with a short account of the discovery, collection and manu- 
facture of India rubber are set forth in a manner designed 
to be readily understood, the explanation being plain and 
simple. Third edition. 175 pages, illustrated. Price, $1.50 

SAWS 



Saw Filing and Management of Saws. 

By Robert Grimshaw. A practical hand-book on. filing, 
gumming, swaging, hammering and the brazing of band saws, 
the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. A 
handy book for those who have charge of saws, or for those 
mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals with the proper 
shape and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many 
useful hints and rules for gumming, setting, and filing, and is 
a practical aid to those who use saws for any purpose. Fourth 
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. Price, $1.50 

SCREW CUTTING 



Threads and Thread Cutting. 

By Colvin and Stable. This clears up many of the mysteries 
of thread cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal 
threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of 
useful hints and several tables. Third edition. 

Price, 35 cents 

STEAM ENGINEERING 



American Stationary Engineering. 

By W. E. Crane. A new book by a well-known author. 
Begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. 
Contains the result of years of practical experience in all 
sorts of engine rooms and gives exact information that cannot 
be found elsewhere. It's plain enough for practical men and 
yet of value to those high in the profession. Has a complete 
examination for a license. Third edition revised and en- 
larged. 311 pages, 131 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $2.50 

36 



Steam Engine Troubles. 

By H. Hamkens. It is safe to say that no book has ever 
been published which gives the practical engineer such valua- 
ble and comprehensive information on steam engine design 
and troubles. There are descriptions of cylinders, valves, 
pistons, frames, pillow blocks and other bearings, connect- 
ing rods, wristplates, dashpots, reachrods, valve gears, gov- 
ernors, piping, throttle and emergency valves, safety stops, 
flywheels, oilers, etc. If there is any trouble with these 
parts, the book gives you the reasons and tell how to remedy 
them. New Edition. 284 pages, 276 illustrations. 

Price, $2.50 

Modern Steam Engineering in Theory and Prac- 
tice. 

By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a complete and practical 
work issued for stationary engineers and firemen dealing 
with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, 
superheated steam, refrigerating machinery, dynamos, motors, 
elevators, air compressors, and all other branches with which 
the modern engineer must be familiar. Nearly 200 questions 
with their answers on steam and electrical engineering, likely 
to be asked by the examining board, are included. Fourth 
edition. 487 pages, 405 engravings. Cloth. Price, $3.50 

Steam Engineer's Arithmetic. 

By Colvin-Cheney. A practical pocket book for the steam 
engineer. Shows how to work the problems of the engine 
room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horse-power 
of engines and boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas 
and circumferences; steam tables; has a dictionary of engi- 
neering terms. Puts you onto all of the little kinks in 
figuring whatever there is to figure around a power plant. 
Tells you about the heat unit; absolute zero; adiabatic ex- 
pansion; duty of engines; factor of safety; and 1,001 other 
things; and everything is plain and simple — not the hardest 
way to figure, but the easiest. Second edition. 

Priee, 75 cents 

Steam Engine Catechism. 

By Robert Grimshaw. This volume of 413 pages is not 
only a catechism on the question and answer principle, but 
it contains formulas and worked-out answers for all the steam 
problems that appertain to the operation and management of 
the steam engine. Sixteenth edition. Price, $2.00 

Engine Runner's Catechism. 

By Robert Grimshaw. Tells how; to erect^ adjust and run 
the principal steam engines in use in the United States. The 
work is of a handy size for the pocket. To young engineers 
this catechism will be of great value, especially to those who 
may be preparing to go forward to be examined for certifi- 
cates of competency; and to engineers generally it will be 
of no little service, as they will find in this volume more 
really practical and useful information than is to be found 
anywhere else within a like compass. 387 pages. Seventh 
edition. Price, $2.00 

37 



STEAM HEATING and VENTILATING 

Practical Steam, Hot- Water Heating and Ven- 
tilation. 

By A. G. King. This book has been prepared for the use 
of all engaged in the business of steam, hot-water heating 
and ventilation. Tells how to get heating contracts, how to 
install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business 
methods to be used, with "Tricks of the Trade" for shop 
use. Rules and data for estimating radiation and cost and 
such tables and information as make it an indispensable 
work for everyone interested in steam, hot-water heating and 
ventilation. It describes all the principal systems of steam, 
hot-water, vacuum, vapor and vacuum-vapor heating, together 
with the new accelerated systems of hot-water circulation, 
including chapters on up-to-date methods of ventilation and 
the fan or blower system of heating and ventilation. Third 
edition. 402 pages, 300 detailed engravings. Price, $3.50 

500 Plain Answers to Direct Questions on Steam, 
Hot*^ Water, Vapor and Vaccum Heating Prac- 
tice. 

By Alfred G. King. This work is arranged in question and 
answer form; it is intended as a guide and text -book for the 
younger inexperienced fitter and as a reference book for all 
fitters. All long and tedious discussions and descriptions 
formerly considered so important have been eliminated, and 
the theory and laws of heat and the various old and .modern 
methods and appliances used for heating and ventilating are 
treated in a concise manner. This is the standard Question 
and Answer examination book on Steam and Hot Water 
Heating, etc. 214 pages, 127 illustrations. Octavo. Cloth. 

Price, $2.00 

STEEL 



Hardening, Tempering, Annealing and Forging 
of Steel. 

By J. V. Woodworth. A book containing special directions 
for the successful hardening and tempering of all steel tools. 
Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and 
shell, hollow mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet- 
metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery and 
metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all 
implements of steel, both large and small, the simplest, and 
most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes are 
presented. 320 pages, 215 illustrations. Fifth revised edition. 
Cloth. Price, $3.00 

Steel: Its Selection, Annealing, Hardening and 
Tempering. 

By E. R. Markham. This work was formerly known as 
*'The American Steel Worker." This is the standard work 
on hardening, tempering, and annealing steel of all kinds. 
This book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, 
harden, and anneal steel for everything on earth. It is 
the standard book on selecting hardening, and tempering 
all grades of steel. 400 pages. Very fully illustrated. 
Fourth edition. Price, $3.00 

38 



TRACTORS 

Modern Gas Tractor: Its Construction, Utility, 
Operation and Repair. 

By Victor W. Page. An enlarged and revised edition that 
treats exclusively on the design and construction of farm 
tractors and tractor power plants, and gives complete instruc- 
tions on their care, operation and repair. All types and 
sizes of gasoline, kerosene and oil tractors are described, 
and every phase of traction engineering practice fully cov- 
ered. Invaluable to all desiring reliable information on gas 
motor propelled traction engines and their use. All new 
1922 types of tractors are described and complete instruc- 
tions are given for their use on the farm. Valuable infor- 
mation compiled by Government experts on laying out fields 
for tractor plowing and numerous practical suggestions for 
hitches so all types of agricultural machinery can be operated 
by tractors are outlined. Full instructions are also given 
for using kerosene and distillate as fuel. 600 pages, 300 
illustrations, 3 folding plates. Privd, $3.00 

WELDING 

Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting with a 
Treatise on Acetylene and Oxygen. 

By P. F. Willis._ The 6th revised and much enlarged edi- 
tion of this book is just off the press. It is a very complete 
work, written in simple language, fully illustrated with en- 
gravings showing how to prepare the work, as well as the 
actual welding of it. Special chapters treating on Acetylene 
Oxygen Welding and Cutting, Torch Apparatus and Installa- 
tion, Preparing for Welding, Welding of Different Metals, 
Welding of Sheet Metal and Pipe, Welding of Boilers, 
Welding of Various Pieces, Electric Welding, Automobile 
and miscellaneous welding are contained, as well as other 
valuable data. 250 pages. Fully illustrated. Price, $1.50 

Modern Welding Methods. 

By Victor W. Page. It considers in detail oxy-acetylene 
welding,_ the Thermit process and all classes of electric arc 
and resistance welding. It shows all the apparatus needed 
and how to use it. It considers the production of welding 
gases, construction and operation of welding and cutting 
torches of all kinds. It details the latest approved methods 
of preparing work for welding. All forms of gas and electric 
-welding machines are described and complete instructions 
are given for installing electric spot and butt welders. Cost 
data are given and all methods of doing the work economi- 
cally are described. It includes instructions for forge and 
dip brazing and manufacture of hard solders and spelters. 
It shows and explains soft soldering processes and tells how 
to make solders for any use. Complete instructions are 
given for soldering aluminum and authoritative formulas for 
aluminum solders are included. 292 pages. 200 illustrations. 
New edition. Price, $3.00 

Automobile Welding with Oxy-Acetylene Flame. 

By M. Keith Dunham. (See page 5 for full description.) 

Price, $1.50 

39 



The Most Valuable Techno-Chemical Recipe 
Book Ever Offered to the Public! 

Henley's Twentieth Century Book of 

RECIPES, FORMULAS 
AND PROCESSES 

Price $4.00 

This book of 800 pages is the most complete Book of Recipe9 
ever published, giving thousands of recipes for the manu- 
facture of valuable articles for every-day use. Hints, Helps, 
Practical ideas and Secret 
Processes are revealed within 
its pages. It covers every 
branch of the useful arts and 
tells thousands of ways of mak- 
ing money and is just the book 
everyone should have at his 
command. 

The pages are filled with 
matters of intense interest and 
immeasurable practical value to 
the Photographer, the Perfumer, 
the Painter, the Manufacturer 
of Glues, Pastes, Cements and 
Mucilages, the Physician, the 
Druggist, the Electrician, the 
Dentist, the Engineer, the 
Foundryman, the Machinist, the 
Potter,' the Tanner, the Con- 
fectioner, the Chiropodist, the 
Manufacturer of Chemical Nov- 
elties and Toilet Preparations, 
the Dyer, the Electroplater, the 
Enameler, the Engraver, the Provisioner, the Glass Worker, 
the Goldbeater, the Watchmaker and Jeweler, the Ink Manu- 
facturer, the Optician, the Farmer, the Dairyman, the Paper 
Maker, the Metal Worker, the Soap Maker, the Veterinary 
Surgeon and the Technologist in general. 

A book to which you may turn with confidence that you 
will find what you are looking for. A mine of information, 
up-to-date in every respect. Contains an immense number 
of formulas that everyone ought to have that are not found 
in any other work. 

1 A fl A A Practical Formulas and Processes 

IU9UUU The Best Way to Make Everything 

ONE USEFUL RECIPE WILL BE WORTH MORE 

THAN TEN TIMES THE PRICE OF THE BOOK 

(See page 35 for further description of the book.) 

40 





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